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Group (IV) metal oxo clusters represent a unique family of molecular species that are increasingly being utilized in applications ranging from catalysis and materials chemistry to electronics, and sensors. These clusters exhibit distinctive structural features, chemical reactivity, and electronic structure. Nevertheless, their full potential has yet to be fully realized due to the lack of deeper understanding regarding their structure and formation mechanisms, inherent traits, and intricacies in their design, which could ultimately enable significant customization of their properties and overall behaviour. Considering the recently observed reignited interest in the chemistry of group IV molecular species, the scope of this article is to bring to the readers the main chemical characteristics of the family of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium-based clusters, their structural features and their potential in future applications.

Lanthanides, holmium(iii), dysprosium(iii), and terbium(iii), were coordinated to an amphiphilic DOTA bis-coumarin derivative and then further assembled with an amphiphilic europium(iii) DTPA bis-coumarin derivative into mono-disperse micelles. The self-assembled micelles were characterized and assessed for their potential as bimodal contrast agents for high field magnetic resonance and optical imaging applications. All micelles showed a high transverse relaxation (r 2 ) of 46, 34, and 30 s -1 mM -1 at 500 MHz and 37 °C for Dy(iii), Ho(iii) and Tb(iii), respectively, which is a result of the high magnetic moment of these lanthanides and the long rotational correlation time of the micelles. The quantum yield in aqueous solution ranged from 1.8% for Tb/Eu to 1.4% for Dy/Eu and 1.0% for the Ho/Eu micelles. Multi-photon excited emission spectroscopy has shown that due to the two-photon absorption of the coumarin chromophore the characteristic Eu(iii) emission could be observed upon excitation at 800 nm, demonstrating the usefulness of the system for in vivo fluorescence imaging applications. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example reporting the potential of a holmium(iii) chelate as a negative MRI contrast agent.

A mild post-functionalization method, based on a copper(i) catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition, was developed for the fragile [P 2 W 15 V 3 ] 9- (PWV). PWV was functionalized with an azide and used as a platform to attach various alkyne functionalized compounds.

The catalytic hydrolysis of a phosphoester bond in the DNA-model substrate 4-nitrophenyl phosphate (NPP) promoted by Zr(iv)-substituted Wells-Dawson Na14[Zr4(P2W16O59)2(μ3-O)2(OH)2(H2O)4]·57H2O polyoxometalate (ZrWD 4 : 2) was followed by means of (1)H and (31)P NMR spectroscopy. The hydrolytic reaction proceeded with a rate constant of 8.44 (±0.36) × 10(-5) s(-1) at pD 6.4 and 50 °C, representing a 300-fold rate enhancement in comparison with the spontaneous hydrolysis of NPP (kobs = 2.81 (±0.25) × 10(-7) s(-1)) under the same reaction conditions. The ZrWD 4 : 2 was also active towards hydrolysis of bis(4-nitrophenyl) phosphate (BNPP) and the RNA model substrate 2-hydroxypropyl-4-nitrophenyl phosphate (HPNP). The pD dependence of kobs shows that the rate constants for NPP hydrolysis decrease significantly when the pD values of the reaction mixtures increase. The formation constant (Kf = 190 M(-1)) and catalytic rate constant (kc = 6.40 × 10(-4) s(-1)) for the NPP-ZrWD 4 : 2 complex, activation energy (Ea) of 110.15 ± 7.06 kJ mol(-1), enthalpy of activation (ΔH(‡)) of 109.03 ± 6.86 kJ mol(-1), entropy of activation (ΔS(‡)) of 15.20 ± 2.49 J mol(-1) K(-1), and Gibbs activation energy (ΔG(‡)) of 104.32 ± 6.09 kJ mol(-1) at 37 °C were calculated from kinetic studies. The recyclability of ZrWD 4 : 2 was examined by adding an extra amount (5.0 mM) of NPP twice to a fully hydrolyzed mixture of 5.0 mM NPP and 1.0 mM ZrWD 4 : 2. The interaction between ZrWD 4 : 2 and the P-O bond of NPP was evidenced by a change in the (31)P chemical shift of the (31)P atom in NPP upon addition of ZrWD 4 : 2. Based on (31)P NMR experiments and the kinetic studies, a mechanism for NPP hydrolysis promoted by ZrWD 4 : 2 has been proposed.

Dysprosium(iii) was coordinated to four 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) bisamide derivatives functionalized with amphiphilic p-dodecylaniline and p-tetradecylaniline in a differing cis- and trans-orientation. The complexes were assembled into mono-disperse micelles having size distribution maxima ranging from 10 to 15 nm and the magnetic and optical properties of the micelles were examined in detail. The micelles show characteristic Dy(iii) emission with quantum yields reaching 0.8%. The transverse relaxivity r2 per Dy(iii) ion at 500 MHz and 310 K reaches maximum values of ca. 20 s(-1) mM(-1) which is a large increase when compared to a value of 0.8 s(-1) mM(-1) observed for Dy(III)-DTPA. The micelles were stable in water when incubated at 37 °C for 1 week and showed no relaxivity decrease when measured in the presence of 4% (w/v) human serum albumin. The efficient T2 relaxation, especially at strong magnetic fields, is sustained by the high magnetic moment of the dysprosium(iii) ion, the coordination of water molecules and long rotational correlation times.

A new azide functionalized Anderson polyoxometalate was synthesized, fully characterized and subsequently used as a building block for further POM post-functionalization with organic compounds through a copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. Optimization of the reaction conditions led to an efficient, fast, convenient and versatile POM coupling method.

The reactivity and solution behaviour of the binuclear Zr(IV)-substituted Keggin polyoxometalate (Et2NH2)8[{α-PW11O39Zr(μ-OH)(H2O)}2]·7H2O (ZrK 2 : 2) towards phosphoester bond hydrolysis of the RNA model substrate 2-hydroxypropyl-4-nitrophenyl phosphate (HPNP) was investigated at different reaction conditions (pD, temperature, concentration, and ionic strength). The hydrolysis of the phosphoester bond of HPNP, followed by means of (1)H NMR spectroscopy, proceeded with an observed rate constant, kobs = 11.5(±0.42) × 10(-5) s(-1) at pD 6.4 and 50 °C, representing a 530-fold rate enhancement in comparison with the spontaneous hydrolysis of HPNP. (1)H and (31)P NMR spectra indicate that at these reaction conditions the only products of hydrolysis are p-nitrophenol and the corresponding cyclic phosphate ester. The pD dependence of kobs exhibits a bell-shaped profile, with the fastest rate observed at pD 6.4. The formation constant (Kf = 455 M(-1)) and catalytic rate constant (kc = 42 × 10(-5) s(-1)) for the HPNP-ZrK 2 : 2 complex, activation energy (Ea) of 63.35 ± 1.82 kJ mol(-1), enthalpy of activation (ΔH(‡)) of 60.60 ± 2.09 kJ mol(-1), entropy of activation (ΔS(‡)) of -133.70 ± 6.13 J mol(-1) K(-1), and Gibbs activation energy (ΔG(‡)) of 102.05 ± 0.13 kJ mol(-1) at 37 °C were calculated from kinetic experiments. Binding between ZrK 2 : 2 and the P-O bond of HPNP was evidenced by the change in the (31)P chemical shift and signal line-broadening of the (31)P atom in HPNP upon addition of ZrK 2 : 2. Based on (31)P NMR experiments and isotope effect studies, a mechanism for HPNP hydrolysis in the presence of ZrK 2 : 2 was proposed.

Linking multiple paramagnetic gadolinium(III)-chelates based on the 2-[4,7,10-tris(carboxymethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododec-1-yl]acetate (DOTA) ligand to the surface of NaGdF4:Yb(3+),Tm(3+) upconverting nanoparticles with an average particle size of 20 nm resulted in an assembly that has favorable properties for bimodal Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Optical Imaging (OI). An improved synthetic pathway was used to couple the paramagnetic precursor to the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were rendered water dispersible via citrate capping, leaving one acid group free for amide coupling with the mono-amino precursor of the DOTA ligand. Luminescence spectroscopy measurements have shown that the excitation of the nanoconstruct at 980 nm resulted in intense upconverted emission of thulium(III) at 800 nm. The assembly of several paramagnetic centers on the nanoparticle scaffold reduces the overall tumbling rate, resulting in enhanced longitudinal relaxation times and improved relaxivity. The proton NMRD profiles show a characteristic hump at higher frequencies, which is caused by the slow rotation of the nanoconstruct, resulting in r1 values of 25 mM(-1) s(-1) per gadolinium(III)-ion at 60 MHz and 310 K. This is a significant improvement compared to the Gd-DO3A-ethylamine precursor (4) for which a value of r1 of 3.23 mM(-1) s(-1) was observed under the same conditions. Theoretical fitting by two different approaches showed an increase of τR from 57.3 ps for the Gd-DO3A-ethylamine precursor (4) to 392.0 ps for the nanoconstruct, which is responsible for the overall substantial increase in relaxivity.

We report for the first time on the selective hydrolysis of a polypeptide system by a metal-substituted polyoxometalate (POM). Oxidized insulin chain B, a 30 amino acid polypeptide, was selectively cleaved by the Zr(IV)-substituted Wells-Dawson POM, K15H[Zr(α2-P2W17O61)2]·25H2O, under physiological pH and temperature conditions in aqueous solution. HPLC-ESI-MS, LC-MS/MS, MALDI-TOF and MALDI-TOF MS/MS data indicate hydrolysis at the Phe1-Val2, Gln4-His5, Leu6-Cys(SO3H)7, and Gly8-Ser9 peptide bonds. The rate of oxidized insulin chain B hydrolysis (0.45 h(-1) at pH 7.0 and 60 °C) was calculated by fitting the integration values of its HPLC-UV signal to a first-order exponential decay function. (1)H NMR measurements show significant line broadening and shifting of the polypeptide resonances upon addition of the Zr(IV)-POM, indicating that interaction between the Zr(IV)-POM and the polypeptide takes place in solution. Circular dichroism (CD) measurements clearly prove that the flexible unfolded nature of the polypeptide was retained in the presence of the Zr(IV)-POM. The thermal stability of the Zr(IV)-POM in the presence of the polypeptide chain during the hydrolytic reaction was confirmed by (31)P NMR spectroscopy. Despite the highly negative charge of the Zr(IV)-POM, the mechanism of interaction appears to be dominated by a strong metal-directed binding between the positively charged Zr(IV) center and negatively charged amino acid side chains.

The synthesis and characterization of two novel DTPA bisamide derivatives DTPA-BC12PheA and DTPA-BC14PheA functionalized with p-dodecylaniline and p-tetradecylaniline are described. The ligands were coordinated to Gd(iii) and Eu(iii), resulting in highly paramagnetic and luminescent complexes, respectively. Mixed micelles consisting of Gd/Eu-DTPA-BC12PheA and DTPA-BC14PheA with a homogeneous size distribution (33-40 nm) were prepared by the assembly of the amphiphilic complexes with phospholipid DPPC and a surfactant Tween 80®. Taking into account the sensitivity difference between magnetic resonance and optical imaging techniques, the ratios of Gd and Eu complexes (Gd/Eu) 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 3 : 1, 20 : 1 and 50 : 1 were combined in one single micelle and their optical and relaxometric properties were characterized in detail. Upon excitation at 290 nm, the micelles display characteristic red emission bands due to the (5)D0→(7)FJ (J = 0-4) transitions of Eu(iii). The number of water molecules in the first coordination sphere of Eu(iii) (qEu = 0.1-0.2) was calculated from the lifetime measurements performed in H2O and D2O solutions. Micelles composed of exclusively europium complexes display quantum yields in the range of 1.0%, decreasing with the europium concentration when going from 1 : 1 to 50 : 1 Gd/Eu contents. The ligand-to-lanthanide sensitization efficiency for micelles consisting of Eu-DTPA-BC12PheA and Eu-DTPA-BC14PheA equals 3.8% and 4.1%, respectively. The relaxivity r1 per Gd(iii) ion at 40 MHz and 310 K reaches a maximum value of 14.2 s(-1) mM(-1) for the Gd-DTPA-BC12PheA assemblies and 16.0 s(-1) mM(-1) for the micellar Gd-DTPA-BC14PheA assemblies compared to a value of 3.5 s(-1) mM(-1) for Gd-DTPA (Magnevist®). Theoretical fitting of the (1)H NMRD profiles results in τR values of 4.2 to 6.6 ns. The optimal concentration ratio of Gd/Eu compounds in the micelles in order to provide the required bimodal performance has been determined to be 20 : 1. In the search for other bimodal systems, this discovery can be used as a guideline concerning the load of paramagnetic agents with respect to luminescent probes.

In this paper the reactivity of K15H[Zr(α2-P2W17O61)2]·25H2O (1), a Zr(IV)-substituted Wells-Dawson polyoxometalate, is examined towards a series of Gly-Aa, Aa-Gly or Aa-Ser dipeptides, in which the nature and the size of the Aa amino acid side chain were varied. The rate of peptide bond hydrolysis, determined by (1)H NMR experiments, in Gly-Aa dipeptides is strongly dependent on the molecular volume and the chemical structure of the Aa side chain. When the volume of the aliphatic side chain of the Aa residue in Gly-Aa increased, a clear decrease in the hydrolysis rate was observed. Replacing one α-H in the C-terminal Gly residue of Gly-Gly by a methyl group (Gly-Ala) resulted in a 6-fold reactivity decrease, pointing towards the importance of steric factors for efficient peptide bond hydrolysis. The rate constants for peptide bond hydrolysis in Gly-Aa dipeptides at pD 5.0 and 60 °C ranged from 208.0 ± 15.6 × 10(-6) min(-1) for Gly-Ser to 5.0 ± 1.0 × 10(-6) min(-1) for Gly-Glu, reflecting the influence of the different nature of the amino acid side chains on the hydrolysis rate. Faster hydrolysis was observed for peptides containing Ser and Thr since the hydroxyl group in their side chain is able to facilitate amide bond hydrolysis by promoting an N→O acyl rearrangement. Peptides containing positively charged side chains at pD 5.0 show enhanced hydrolysis rates as a result of the secondary electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged surface of the polyoxometalate, which stabilize the peptide-polyoxometalate complex. A slow hydrolysis rate was observed for Gly-Glu, because of the preferential coordination of the carboxylate group in the side chain of Glu to Zr(IV), which prevents coordination of the peptide carbonyl group and its activation towards hydrolysis.

Detailed kinetic studies on the hydrolysis of glycylserine (Gly-Ser) and glycylglycine (Gly-Gly) in the presence of the dimeric zirconium(IV)-substituted Keggin type polyoxometalate (Et2NH2)8[{α-PW11O39Zr(μ-OH)(H2O)}2]·7H2O (1) were performed by a combination of (1)H, (13)C and (31)P NMR spectroscopy. The observed rate constants for the hydrolysis of Gly-Ser and Gly-Gly at pD 5.4 and 60 °C were 63.3 × 10(-7) s(-1) and 4.44 × 10(-7) s(-1) respectively, representing a significant acceleration as compared to the uncatalyzed reactions. The pD dependence of the rate constant for both reactions exhibited a bell-shaped profile with the fastest hydrolysis observed in the pD range of 5.5-6.0. Interaction of 1 with Gly-Ser and Gly-Gly via their amine nitrogen and amide oxygen was proven by (13)C NMR spectroscopy. The effective hydrolysis of Gly-Ser in the presence of 1 is most likely a combination of the polarization of the amide oxygen due to its binding to the Zr(IV) ion in 1 and the intramolecular attack of the Ser hydroxyl group on the amide carbonyl carbon. The effect of temperature, inhibitors, and ionic strength on the hydrolysis rate constant was also examined. The solution structure of 1 was investigated by means of (31)P NMR spectroscopy, revealing that its stability is highly dependent on pH, concentration and temperature. A 2.0 mM solution of 1 was found to be fully stable under hydrolytic conditions (pD 5.4 and 60 °C) both in the presence and in the absence of the dipeptides.

A ditopic DTPA monoamide derivative containing an 8-hydroxyquinoline moiety was synthesized and the corresponding gadolinium(III) complex ([Gd(H5)(H(2)O)](-)) was prepared. After adding aluminum(III), the 8-hydroxyquinoline part self-assembled into a heteropolymetallic triscomplex [(Gd5)(3)Al(H(2)O)(3)](3-). The magnetic and optical properties of this metallostar compound were investigated in order to classify it as a potential in vitro bimodal contrast agent. The proton nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion measurements indicated that the relaxivity r(1) of [Gd(H5)(H(2)O)](-) and [(Gd5)(3)Al(H(2)O)(3)](3-) at 20 MHz and 310 K equaled 6.17 s(-1) mM(-1) and 10.9 s(-1) mM(-1) per Gd(III) ion respectively. This corresponds to a relaxivity value of 32.7 s(-1) mM(-1) for the supramolecular complex containing three Gd(III) ions. The high relaxivity value is prominently caused by an increase of the rotational tumbling time τ(R) by a factor of 2.7 and 5.5 respectively, in comparison with the commercially used MRI contrast agent Gd(III)-DTPA (Magnevist®). Furthermore, upon UV irradiation, [(Gd5)(3)Al(H(2)O)(3)](3-) exposes green broad-band emission with a maximum at 543 nm. Regarding the high relaxivity and the photophysical properties of the [(Gd5)(3)Al(H(2)O)(3)](3-) metallostar compound, it can be considered as a lead compound for in vitro bimodal applications.

In this study we report the first example of phosphoester bond hydrolysis in 4-nitrophenyl phosphate (NPP) and bis-4-nitrophenyl phosphate (BNPP), two commonly used DNA model substrates, promoted by metal-substituted polyoxometalates (POMs). Different transition metal and lanthanide ions were incorporated into the Wells-Dawson polyoxometalate framework and subsequently screened for their hydrolytic activity towards the cleavage of the phosphoester bonds in NPP and BNPP. From these complexes, the Zr(iv)-substituted POM showed the highest reactivity. At pD 7.2 and 50 °C a NPP hydrolysis rate constant of 7.71 × 10(-4) min(-1) (t(1/2) = 15 h) was calculated, representing a rate enhancement of nearly two orders of magnitude in comparison with the spontaneous hydrolysis of NPP. The catalytic (k(c) = 1.73 × 10(-3) min(-1)) and formation constant (K(f) = 520.02 M(-1)) for the NPP-Zr(iv)-POM complex were determined from kinetic experiments. The reaction proceeded faster in acidic conditions and (31)P NMR experiments showed that faster hydrolysis is proportional to the presence of the 1 : 1 monosubstituted Zr(iv)-POM at acidic pD values. The strong interaction of the 1 : 1 monosubstituted Zr(iv)-POM with the P-O bond of NPP was evidenced by the large chemical shift and the line broadening of the (31)P nucleus in NPP observed upon addition of the metal complex. Significantly, a ten-fold excess of NPP was fully hydrolyzed in the presence of the Zr(iv)-POM, proving the principles of catalysis. The NMR spectra did not show sign of any paramagnetic species, excluding an oxidative cleavage mechanism and suggesting purely hydrolytic cleavage.

Trinuclear rare-earth metal complexes [M₃(taciH₋₃)₂](3+) (M = La(3+), Y(3+)), based on a rigid polyamino-polyalcohol ligand 1,3,5-triamino-1,3,5-trideoxy-cis-inositol (taci), are proven to be efficient catalysts for the hydrolysis of 2-hydroxypropyl-4-nitrophenyl phophate (HPNP), a commonly used RNA model system.

Hydrolysis of carboxylic esters p-nitrophenyl acetate (pNPA), p-nitrophenyl butyrate (pNPB) and p-nitrophenyl trimethyl acetate (pNPTA) was examined in oxovanadate solutions by means of (1)H and (51)V NMR spectroscopy. In the presence of a mixture of oxovanadates, the hydrolysis of carboxyester bonds in pNPA proceeds under physiological conditions (37 °C, pD = 7.4) with a rate constant of k(obs) = 3.0 × 10(-5) s(-1) representing an acceleration of at least one order of magnitude compared to the uncatalyzed cleavage. EPR and NMR spectra did not show evidence for the formation of paramagnetic species, excluding the possibility of V(+5) reduction to V(+4), and indicating that the cleavage of the carboxyester bond is purely hydrolytic. The pH dependence of k(obs) revealed that the hydrolysis is slow in acidic media but rapidly accelerates in basic solutions. Comparison of the rate profile with the concentration profile of polyoxovanadates shows a clear overlap of the k(obs) profile with the concentration of monovanadate (V(1)). Kinetic experiments at 37 °C using a fixed amount of pNPA and increasing amounts of V(1) permitted the calculation of catalytic (k(c) = 1 x10(-4) s(-1)) and formation constant for the pNPA-V(1) complex (K(f) = 17.5 M(-1)). The (51)V NMR spectra of a reaction mixture revealed broadening and shifting of the (51)V NMR resonances of the V(1) and V(2) upon addition of increasing amount of pNPA, suggesting a dynamic exchange process between vanadates and pNPA, occurring via a rapid association-dissociation equilibrium. The origin of the hydrolytic activity of vanadate is most likely a combination of its nucleophilic nature and the chelating properties which can lead to the stabilization of the transition state.

A molecule bearing a macrocyclic DOTA-type chelator and an acyclic chelator based on the 5-aminoisophthalamide diethylenediaminetetraacid (5A-PADDTA) was synthesized by linking these two moieties via an amide bond. The ligand has the possibility to complex two identical or different lanthanide ions, depending on the desire for its potential application. Luminescence studies involving titrations of the Eu(3+) or Gd(3+) complex with Tb(3+) confirm the formation of heterometallic complexes, as well as the presence of different species in the solution. Comparative (1)H NMR spectra of the ligand, its Eu(3+) complex, and that containing both Eu(3+) and Tb(3+) proves the existence of respective monometallic or bimetallic species. NMR diffusion measurements on 5A-PADDTA as a model compound indicate the formation of aggregates upon the addition of Y(3+) (chosen as a diamagnetic analogue of lanthanide ions). Hydration values were calculated from the respective luminescence lifetime values. They show the dominance of a q = 1 species for both ions in monometallic complexes, or q = 1 and q = 2 species of ions in aggregated complexes, for DOTA and 5A-PADDTA chelators, respectively.

Hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl phosphate (NPP) and bis-4-nitrophenyl phosphate (BNPP), two commonly used DNA model substrates, was examined in vanadate solutions by means of (1)H, (31)P and (51)V NMR spectroscopy. The hydrolysis of the phosphoester bond in NPP at 50 degrees C and pH 5.0 proceeds with a rate constant of 1.74 x 10(-5) s(-1). The cleavage of the phosphoester bond in BNPP at 70 degrees C and pH 5.0 proceeds with a rate constant of 3.32 x 10(-6) s(-1), representing an acceleration of four orders of magnitude compared to the uncatalyzed cleavage. Inorganic phosphate and nitrophenol (NP) were the only products of hydrolysis. The NMR spectra did not show evidence of any paramagnetic species, excluding the possibility of V(V) reduction to V(IV), indicating that the cleavage of the phosphoester bond is purely hydrolytic. The pH dependence of k(obs) revealed that the hydrolysis proceeds fastest in solutions of pH 5.5. Comparison of the rate profile with the concentration profile of polyoxovanadates shows a striking overlap of the k(obs) profile with the concentration of decavanadate (V(10)). Kinetic experiments at 37 degrees C using a fixed amount of NPP and increasing amounts of V(10) permitted the calculation of catalytic (k(c) = 5.67 x 10(-6) s(-1)) and formation constants for the NPP-V(10) complex (K(f) = 71.53 M(-1)). Variable temperature (31)P NMR spectra of a reaction mixture revealed broadening and shifting of the (31)P resonance upon addition of increasing amounts of decavanadate and upon increasing temperature, implying the dynamic exchange process between free and bound NPP at higher temperatures. The origin of the hydrolytic activity of V(10) is most likely due its high lability and its dissociation into smaller fragments which may allow the attachment of NPP and BNPP into the polyoxovanadate framework.