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Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the combined influence these various types of postsecondary schooling have on the labour market outcomes for male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from the 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary schooling. The gender gap in earnings is also highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with education related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, there has been a consensus that marriage benefits men's hourly wages. The main explanation has been gender role specialization within the household. Recent evidence, however, challenged this view suggesting that there is no causal marital wage premium (MWP) for men in the United States (Ludwig and Brüderl 2018, Killewald and Lundberg 2017). These authors showed that such a premium is spurious and most likely due to selection processes in the marriage market. In this paper we argue that this critique of the MWP applies to the literature on family related wage gaps ("family premiums") more generally. To this end, we broaden the study by Ludwig and Brüderl (2018) in two ways: First, we extend their analysis to European countries. We use long-lasting panel studies from the U.S., the U.K, Switzerland, West Germany, and East Germany. With pooled OLS (POLS) we find a large and significant MWP in all five countries. With conventional fixed-effects estimation (FE) the MWP is reduced in all countries. Finally, using an extended fixed-effects model that allows for individual-specific constants and slopes (FEIS) the MWP vanishes in all countries. These results demonstrate that the MWP is not causal, but most likely due to selection of men with steeper wage growth into marriage. Second, we ask whether similar results obtain for other family transitions like cohabitation and fatherhood. Previous literature using FE reported premiums for these family transitions. We also find such family premiums in most countries which, however, disappear when we use FEIS. Thus, it seems that also these family premiums are not causal but are spurious. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As higher education has expanded over time, horizontal stratification in education attainment has become a significant issue. A critical dimension of interest centers on differences in labor market outcomes by fields of study. We use several panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation matched to longitudinal tax information to estimate the lifecycle earnings pattern by field of study for individuals in the baby boom cohort. A key question addresses the extent to which the earnings gaps by fields of study vary at different points of the distribution using a quantile regression approach. We find evidence that the earnings gap by fields of study are not constant across the distribution. Among bachelor degree holders, fields of study tended to have greater earnings effects at lower quantiles. The earnings gap between less lucrative majors, such as liberal arts, with majors associated with higher earnings, such as STEM, increased at lower quantiles and narrowed systematically toward the higher quantiles. Among graduate degree holders, the earnings gap associated with lucrative fields such as law and MBA increased at the higher quantiles. The results also show relatively stable patterns over prime-age working years, but there are several noticeable changes when younger and older stages are compared. The implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large body of literature describes the occupational gender wage gap at the national labor market level as well as in specific occupations. Yet, among those studies of withinoccupational inequality, few have focused on how occupational change affects gender wage inequality. With an increasing number of female workers entering into the labor force of the criminal justice system as well as the high turnover rate in police sector, it is important to explore wage changes in this highly-unionized and hyper-masculine occupation. Using two-wave panel data from the Current Population Survey Merged Outgoing Rotation Group (CPS-MORG) from 1979 to 2016, this study examines how change in occupational status along with change in union membership may lead to different wage rewards or penalties for male and female police officers. Individuals experience a large increase in wages when joining the police occupation and this wage bonus is greater for females rather males. Furthermore, individuals joining the police as well as the unions see a wage bonus but wage loss when leaving the police and unions, but males have a larger wage loss than females when leaving the police force and losing union membership. Implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial research has examined the compensation gap between men and women. We investigate whether such a gap exists for school principals, how the gap has changed over time, and the degree to which it may be explained by characteristics of male and female principals and the schools in which they work. We analyze two sources of data: detailed longitudinal personnel records covering all school principals in the state of Missouri from 1991 to 2016, and repeated cross-sections from the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). We find evidence of significant gender gaps in principals' salaries in both datasets. In Missouri, female principals are paid about $2,350 less than similar men leading the same school in another year. In the national dataset relying on salary self-reports in SASS, we observe an adjusted gender pay gap of about $900. These differentials are important as they accrue and compound over the course of one's career. We also find that school characteristics explain some of the female gap, particularly the sorting of women into lower-paid elementary school leadership positions. Beyond differences in individual characteristics and school sorting, we find evidence that male principals may work slightly longer hours and move across districts more often than female principals. However, these differences explain little of the observed salary gap. Finally, we find no evidence that women close the pay gap with men when they work for a female superintendent. Our findings raise concerns, as they suggest that demand-side drivers of pay gaps, i.e., gender-based discrimination, persist even in a public-sector profession that is often governed by set salary schedules. Pay differentials also have potential implications for female representation in school leadership, which may be dampened by under-rewarding women for their work and creating disincentives for women to enter or remain in such positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japan has one of the highest gender wage gaps of any industrialized nation. However, it is unclear to what extent female employees 1) willingly chose lower-paid jobs, 2) are excluded from better-paid employment, or 3) are less productive. Using a matched employer-employee sample of elite white-collar Japanese workers, I examine these three possibilities. I find that both women and men dislike female-typed jobs, suggesting that women do not chose them voluntarily. Women are less productive, in part justifying the gender pay gap, but employers also reward men and women's productivity differently: men and women with high productivity receive similar rewards, while among unproductive workers, only women are penalized. The results demonstrate that employers' unequal treatment of men and women is a more important contributor to within-firm wage gaps than are employees' choices and preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Income and wage inequality between gender and other social groups is commonly evaluated by the difference in average income or the decomposition of the total amount inequality into a between-group and a within-group component using an inequality measure such as the Theil index. Either approach ignores the dispersional difference between social groups, often manifested in glass ceiling and glass floor effects. This paper introduces a refined Theil decomposition that offers two ways of capturing such between-group distributional differences. An analysis of income data from 10 European countries illustrates the usefulness of the proposed evaluation/decomposition methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociocultural values emphasizing Western ideal body figures have become more important over the past twenty years. An important question is whether the same obesity wage penalties seen in the United States, such as wage reductions for obese individuals, are emerging alongside ideal body figure changes in China. We hypothesize that Westernization will exacerbate the impact of body size on wages for years to come, particularly for nonmanual workers whose workplaces call for extensive interpersonal relations with employers, colleagues, or customers. This study examines the economic outcomes for individuals aged 18-55, focusing on 5,103 female and 6,901 male participants in the longitudinal 1991-2009 China Health and Nutrition Survey. Linear fixed-effects regression models estimate the net effect of BMI on wages; the marginal effect of BMI on wages, by survey year, is also estimated. All analyses control for demographic backgrounds and household fixed effects and are stratified by gender. The results show that there was no obesity wage penalty for men and women during the period 1991-2009. On the other hand, the wage disparity gap for heavier women with nonmanual jobs increased significantly after 2000. Specifically, normal weight women with nonmanual jobs in 2009 made 2.84-2.96 times more than in 1991, while overweight women made 2.77-2.80 times more, and obese women made only 2.58-2.74 times more. The results indicate that women have been subject to wage disparities since 2000, while current male obesity rates may be worsened by social acceptance of a larger body size, particularly for manual workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prioritizing husbands' careers over wives' careers should theoretically constrain wives' career advancement and contribute to the gender wage gap. However, past research has not systematically tested how career priority in decision-making affects decision outcomes. This paper is the first to offer a behavioral operationalization of career prioritizing in family migration decisions and test whether the prioritized spouse indeed experiences better relative outcomes. I analyze dual-earner couples' reports on 73 decisions about whether and where to move. As predicted, husbands' careers fare better than their wives' careers when he has a job lined up before the decision made, when he finds a job before she does, when only the wife makes a job change, and when his career is given as the main reason for choosing that option. Decisions resulting in moves are relatively better for husbands than for wives, compared to decisions not to move. Surprisingly, spouses' relative career gains are not significantly related to whose career initiated the situation, or whether the wife had a job lined up. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Are income inequalities considered legitimate in a society with high inequality as Chile? The International Social Justice Project (ISJP) 2006 includes for the first time a factorial survey research module about justice of earnings that was specially designed for the case of Chile. The use of this type of surveys allows determining the weight given to different criteria in the evaluation of a just earning, and therefore it permits to establish the criteria for a just distribution in a group or population. Based on the analysis of this dataset, the presentation is aimed at establishing the influence of variables such as sex, educational level, ethnical adscription and family status in the determination of a just earning. Besides, the role of income and justice ideologies of the respondents are analyzed as predictors of earnings evaluation, attempting to explain individual variation related to structural and cultural influences. The results are discussed in the framework of the socio economic situation of Chile, one of the countries with the highest income inequality worldwide. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the influence of career timing on gender earning differentials among 1996-97 civil engineering bachelor's degree recipients from Florida public four-year universities. Female graduates earned 98 cents for every dollar earned by their male peers after graduation in 1997. By 2004, they earned 82 cents for every dollar earned by male counterparts. Despite no evidence of personal characteristics' effect such as race, pursuit of a second degree, or employment during undergraduate studies either on the gender wage gap or annual earnings, career factors such as timing and length of stopouts influenced annual earnings but not the gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from three U.S. census waves, we assess differences in earnings among Male and Female "persons of African origins" (African-Americans, African, and Caribbean immigrants) in the United States both cross-sectionally and over time. Results of the analysis suggest that African-American males earn less than their immigrant counterparts from the Caribbean, all things being equal, but earn about the same as immigrants from Africa. This finding was especially strong in the 1990 census and less so in the 1980 or 2000 waves. For females, the pattern is essentially the same. We also examined different indicators of Human Capital. Our results indicate that earning a college degree from a foreign university prior to immigration led to a severe reduction in earnings; however, this penalty seems to have lessened over the period of study. We discuss these findings in the context of the continuing debate on the significance of race, gender, and migration status on socioeconomic attainment in contemporary U.S. society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Union density has been steadily declining since the end of the 1940s, yet the economy has been steadily increasing. The current study assesses the effects of union density on the wage gap of production employees to non-production employees in manufacturing. The results suggest that a decline in union density has led to a widening of the wage gap. The results are consistent across a number of models including political, economic, and industry growth controls for both data. The results support the theory that non-production employees have captured more financial advantages from the fall of unionization largely among non-production employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides the first estimates of the motherhood wage gap for U.S. immigrant women. Women's wages have been found to decrease non-incrementally with additional children and the gap has been found to vary by demographic group. We estimate the gap for immigrant women with 58 broad and specific self reported ancestries. We find that the motherhood wage gap for immigrant women is similar in structure to that for native women and ranges from 2 to 8 percent among immigrant women with 1 to 4 or more children compared to a range of 4 to 15 percent for native women. The size of the gap varies by immigrant women's ancestry. Canadian, Italian and German immigrant women have higher motherhood wage gaps than U.S. native women while gaps do not appear to exist among the largest groups of South Asian immigrant women. Additionally, motherhood wage gaps occur among higher numbers of ancestry groups as number of children increases from 1 to 3. We explore possible connections between the motherhood wage gap and variations in earnings, age and educational attainment by immigrant women's ancestry and numbers of children [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intersection of race and immigrant status forms a unique social space where minority group members and immigrants are afforded or denied the privileges that are routinely accorded to native-born, non-Hispanic whites. Yet recent research on the intersection of race and immigrant status, though, is somewhat outdated, limited to a small number of racial groups (e.g., African Americans and Asians), and inconsistent in its findings. In this paper, we shed light on intersection of race and immigrant status by answering two questions: 1) Do racial disparities in socioeconomic outcomes vary by nativity? And 2) Do native-immigrant disparities in socioeconomic outcomes vary by race? Through hierarchical linear modeling analyses of 2000 Census data linked to metropolitan-area and sending-country data, we address these questions by estimating wage disparities among men by race and nativity. We find that racial wage disparities are similar and significant among natives and immigrants, and that the immigrant experience is considerably worse for blacks, Asians, and Latinos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a long tradition of examination of racial and gender wage gap across jobs little is known about the relative devaluation of jobs at the 2000s and about the sources that are associated with differentiation in devaluation of jobs across labor markets. Using the Census 2000 and O*NET data sets to create a two level models to estimate the level of devaluation of jobs within and between labor markets this study reveals that both within jobs discrimination and between labor market discrimination account for the lower wages to jobs held by minorities and women. This research confirms that female and minority representation in a job reduces the level of wages, even when the two job types have similar skills and requirements. The wage gap that can be attributed to devaluation of jobs held by white woman is about 34% and 38% of minority woman jobs and the racial devaluation of male jobs is about 14%. However, gender and racial devaluation is not constant across labor markets. In labor markets with high proportion of blacks discrimination is against jobs per se. and thus spatial inequality maintained regardless of higher discrimination against individuals. Similarly, gender devaluation across labor market tend to intensify with the increase competition over jobs, the higher the competition among women or between women and men (i.e. where the participation of women in the labor force increased and in dense Hispanics labor markets) the higher the devaluation against woman jobs. This study showed that high roaded policies and institutional arrangements can improve wages in jobs held by disadvantaged population and reduce inequality across labor markets. The most important policy intervention is the UI benefit that decreases the employers' ability to exploit the unemployed population in order to lower wages to jobs held by minorities and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the thesis of increasing overall inequality in German society, this paper discusses changes in the inequality of wages during the period of the social democratic-led government between 1998 and 2005. For the empirical analysis, data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) are used. The main goal of the analyses is to identify the differences in the growth of real wages of various social classes. Empirically, the results show that the inequality of real wages increased between 1998 and 2005. This increase is due to the negative growth of lower-level wages and a corresponding increase in median and higher-level wages. A more detailed look at the wage differences with respect to the individual social class position reveals that the differentiation between social classes has widened over the period in question, leaving the lower classes as losers of the recent wage dynamics in the German labour market. Besides increasing inter-class wage differentials, there was also a slight increase in the intra-class component, pointing to a growing differentiation within social classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender wage gap is among the most persistent and durable characteristics of labor markets and women's lives. Despite differences in focus, almost all studies of the gender wage gap focus on the adult labor market, however almost every teenager in the United States works before adulthood. Therefore, an overwhelming majority of the population experience the labor market, and possibly the gender wage gap, well beforehand. This article focuses on the early labor market experiences of youth and analyzes the gender differentials in earning in the youth labor market.Based on a maximum likelihood estimation with modeled heteroskedasticity using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY97), the findings show there are no gender differences in wages for 12-13 year-old youth. However, we see the emergence of the gender wage gap around fourteen, which widens with age. The wage differential in the early labor market is explained mostly by occupational factors such as types of jobs boys and girls are employed in. However, the "cost of being a girl" still remains. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses three puzzles in inequality to illustrate a new type of account of changes in inequality. The puzzles are first, the combination of falling racial wage inequality with rising racial employment inequality; second, the failure of large numbers of degree holders to drive down the relative returns to degrees; and third, the rise in inequality within and between groups. The paper discusses the overall logical structure of the explanations offered, what those explanations do and do not show, and how they compare to other accounts. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to a broader understanding of the role of marriage in gender stratification in a comparative perspective by providing important descriptive evidence of the distribution of the marriage wage gap for men and women cross-nationally.This paper focuses on marital status and men's and women's wages in fifteen countries using Wave V of the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS). Examining whether there are systematic wage differences between married and unmarried individuals, I find clear evidence of a wage advantage for married men but mixed results for women. Results suggest that both selection into marriage and, to a much more limited extent, household structure are relevant in accounting for some of the wage advantage for married men as well marriage wage differentials found for women. For women, differences in human capital and household structure explain differences in the wages between married and unmarried women in nine of the fifteen countries, but only one country for men. For men, the variation in the marriage bonus net of human capital and household context is limited; for women it varies widely. Explorations seeking to link the variation in the marriage wage gap with macro level indicator such as fertility or female labor force participation do not suggest a clear link to these aspects of the institutional context. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over recent decades, the number of Americans age 65 or older has grown as a proportion of the entire population. This unprecedented aging phenomenon poses that elderly-care issue will become even more important in the near future, and adult children will play an essential role to provide support to their older parents because most adults will have older living parents during their lifetime. Past studies have shown that gender norms play a significant role in the caregiving practice, yet few assess how wage differentials between both sexes may also affect adult children's intergenerational transfer behaviors. Do working adult children use monetary resources to substitute or supplement time contributions to their elderly mothers? How does gendered wage gap influence adult sons and daughters' support-giving decisions? Using the 1992 Health and Retirement Study, this study found that the differentials in transfer practices between adult daughters and sons are a by-product of gender norms and the gendered labor force structure. The multivariate analysis confirmed that adult sons with a higher wage rate tend to spend less time in the caregiving tasks, yet daughters' time contributions do not decline with their earning potentials. Well-paid daughters still spend longer hours than sons to fulfill elderly mothers' caregiving need. In other words, while adult sons use money to substitute for their time transfers, daughters view monetary and time resources as a complement to each other and use them simultaneously in the intergenerational transfer practice. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use the National Survey of College Graduates to estimate black-white wage differences after controlling for the major field of study of the highest degree obtained. Our multivariate statistical models also control for parental education and rural origins. The results for women indicate that, after controlling for these variables, the net effect for being African American is close to zero and not statistically significant. For men, however, the wage gap between African Americans and whites persists. Relative to conventional statistical models that control for the highest level of schooling completed and other basic demographic characteristics, about one-third of the black-white wage gap is explained by field of study and socioeconomic background. More specifically, the latter results indicate that, among college-educated workers, the wages of African American men are still about 13% lower than comparable white men. The implications of these results for understanding the nexus of race, gender, inequality, and education are considered. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The black-white wage gap among women grew from 7 to 17% between 1980 and 2002, increasing despite the improving economic conditions of the 1990s. This paper uses decomposition and relative distribution methods to evaluate this marked growth. Although the majority of the mean log wage gap was due to compositional difference, differential returns played an increasing role over the observation period. Decomposition finds that differential attainment of a college degree and changing labor market conditions have increasingly disadvantaged black women relative to white women. Changing returns to the health care industry, professional, managerial, and sales occupations, working part-time, and being paid hourly contributed most to the growth in the black-white wage gap. Relative distribution methods examine the entire wage distribution and indicate that compositional difference is primarily responsible for the declining fortune of black women across the wage distribution. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyzes the impact of marital status and children on wages and promotions over an 18-year period (1980-1997) in Norway. Norway is a country with strong family policies, with generous support and leave policies after child births, reasonable and widely accessible child care, and a number of other policies aimed at making it easy to combine family and work. The paper uses unique firm-based data, which each year covers about 6,200 firms and about 100,000 employees in the firms. We have access to individual-level wages and careers of the about 100,000 employees annually over the 18-year period, in addition to occupation data, child births, marital histories, educational histories, and more. We address the effects of childbirths for wages and careers and how these effects vary by sex. Most importantly, we assess the level at which the impact of marriage and children occurs: in the allocation of employees to occupations and firms, or whether they also occur within occupations and within occupation-firm units. One of the findings is that having children under age 20 on average increases male wages while it decreases female wages. But once the same work is done in the same occupation and establishment, at the so-called job level, the effects of marriage and children are negligible for both men and women. This is an entirely new type of results, as these processes of marital status and children have not been investigated with respect to how they play out at the firm level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the first version of a new, standardized data tool that can be used to test models of global income allocation, the Standardized Income Distribution Database (SIDD). It is based on a comprehensive collection of income distribution data compiled by the United Nations University's World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER 2000). In this paper, we use the SIDD to engage with the long-running debate on the shape and trajectory of global income inequality. We argue that this debate should shift from a focus on global inequality to a focus on global allocation, exploring the root causes of observed income inequality. When fully complete, the SIDD is designed to be a useful data resource for scholars on all sides of arguments about the mechanisms of global allocation. The SIDD will also find applications in the broadly cross-national study of the relationship between societal inequality and a range of important outcomes, such as health, criminality, and social support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to explain the role of non-standard work arrangements in the sex pay gap among scientists and engineers by drawing on a nationally-representative dataset made up of almost 50,000 scientists and engineers. Categorizing non-standard arrangements according to their wages and provision of health and retirement benefits allowed us to rank order them from best to worst. Multivariate regression results failed to confirm our main hypothesis: the inclusion of variables indicating non-standard employment arrangements failed to explain any of the pay gap among scientists and engineers. Nevertheless, we found that the earnings gap varied in different nonstandard employment arrangements. Unlike in the general labor force, sex inequality was greater in the worst non-standard arrangements than in the best, and sex equality was greater in the best arrangements than in the worst. The overall pattern we demonstrate is that arrangements where pay gaps favored men have the most negative job characteristics, and women were overrepresented in them. Surprisingly, women fared well relative to men in two of the highest-quality non-standard arrangements: contract work and short-term contract work. We conclude by raising the following questions: since in the larger labor force men are substantially overrepresented in the high-quality contracting arrangement, what forces make sciences and engineering different in this regard? And why is the sex pay gap less problematic for contract workers in science and engineering than it is for standard-employment workers in science and engineering? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine hourly wage differences across different groups of Mexican-origin workers. First, we assess the cost of foreign-born status by comparing the hourly wages of Mexican immigrant workers with those of native-born Mexican American workers. Second, we assess the cost of non-citizenship status by comparing the hourly wages of non-citizens with those of Mexican-born U.S. naturalized citizens. We also seek to determine if these costs are greater in California than in Texas. The data are drawn from the 2000 5% Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) U.S. Census. The results from multiple regression analyses reveal that being an immigrant, particularly a non-citizen immigrant, is associated with lower hourly wages, especially in California. Thus, Mexican-origin workers, especially those in California, bear dual costs for being foreign-born and not being naturalized citizens. Finally, we focus on length of time in the United States to assess whether the findings from the initial analyses hold. Results suggest two important points. First, the duration of stay in the United States is positively associated with hourly wage. Second, reflecting anti-immigrant policies and sentiments, those in California, especially a large number of relatively new immigrants and non-citizens, have faced much more disadvantaged labor market contexts than those in Texas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars interested in family and gender inequality have regularly found a negative impact of motherhood on wages, while fatherhood has been found to be positively related to income attainment. In this paper, we examine two factors expected to be related to the association between parenting and wages. First, wage gaps are estimated over time, to investigate changes in these gaps as postindustrial service employment and female labor force participation increasingly become the norm in the U.S. economy. Next, we examine parenting gaps across occupational groups to consider whether certain occupational characteristics are more or less amenable with the parenting role. We draw on data from Current Population Studies from three decade points, the 1979-81, 1989-91, and 1999-2001. The mother gap in income narrows steadily and disappears by the 2000 sample for married women, but remains strong throughout for single women. For married men, the father gap in income contracts initially and then becomes significantly larger over time. For single men, parenting is only associated with an income penalty in the final sample. Little occupational variation is found for any of these groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last two decades, explanatory power of detail occupation on wage has diminished and within-occupational-inequality has grown faster than between-occupational inequality. Growing within-group-inequality is not universal phenomenon by occupations. Both inequality change and mean wage change over time varies across occupation. Using these variability, causes of growing inequality is tested with multi-level growth model. New panel data is constructed from CPS-MORG 1983-2002 for this analysis. Popular union effect hypothesis and skill-biased-technological-change hypothesis are not working well within occupational context. Organizational culture change hypothesis seems to be better explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a model of race discrimination that is based on wealth inequality. A research revealed that African Americans are unable to decrease the income gap due to persistence of racial discrimination. The model reveals that an initial wealth differential can result into disparity between racial groups. The reason is the interaction among agents with a large wealth differential teaches members of the wealthier group to dislike the opposing group. However, without a wealth differential even groups who exhibit animosity toward other groups will learn the ways to interact.

A number of theorists have argued that immigrants are a subsidy to receiving countries in that the reproduction costs for immigrant workers are paid in their countries of origin. However, existing theories of reproduction have focused on the differences between immigrants and the native-born. Differences between temporary and permanent immigrants are critical to understanding the implications of explicitly temporary "guestworker" policies. To examine such differences in wages, this study uses data from the Survey of Migration at the Northern Border of Mexico. Migrants? self-report of country of residence serves as a measure of permanent settlement. The study finds that the wages of temporary migrants (those reporting a Mexican residence) are 37 percent lower than those that have settled in the U.S. In models controlling for age, marital status, and human and social capital factors, the difference is 17.6 percent. The wage difference is not statistically significant in models that also control for occupation. Among married migrants, temporary migrants earn 11.6 percent less controlling for all the above factors. These results support the hypothesis that a potential temporary migrant would be willing to migrate at a lower wage than a potential permanent migrant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the emergent form of economic segmentation and its impact on gender segregation and gender-based earnings differentials in urban China. I argue that a new logic of economic segmentation has emerged during the market transition, altering the relative amount of economic returns to jobs, changing the structural features of job queues. As a result, new patterns of gender segregation emerged. To test this hypothesis, I use data at three levels: a 1995 national sample of individual workers, industry-sector data for 1990 and 1995, and city-level data for 1995. The findings indicate that gender segregation follows the new logic of economic segmentation introduced by the marketization: male workers have penetrated into jobs that have gained in earnings while squeezing out female workers from these high-paying jobs; driven out of lucrative jobs, female workers made inroads into the state sector, now that this sector is becoming differentiated and that its relative economic advantage wanes. Further analysis based on a series of multilevel cross-classified models suggests that in the most marketized cities, workers of both sexes in jobs with high rates of female entry are penalized in earnings, indicating that the negative effect of job feminization on earnings accentuates in the most marketized cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study differences in gender wage inequality across the OECD countries and how they are affected by welfare state characteristics. Previous research has neglected the possibility that both gender wage gaps and the impact of welfare states on them vary by class. Our analysis decomposes the gender wage gap into its class and gender components. In the same vein, we propose differentiating the impact of the welfare state between its effects on class inequality (decommodification) and gender inequality (defamilialization). We also stress the distinct role of welfare states as employers. This makes for a series of hypotheses which this paper begins to test by operationalizing classes as earnings quintiles. Empirically our case rests on a comparative study of gender gaps in 12 countries, using micro-data from the Luxembourg Income Study. The results support our expectations, and they sharpen understanding of the differences between the Scandinavian and American welfare regimes. Social democracy massively brings women into the labor market and broadly supports their earnings position by narrowing overall earnings differentials between classes. But it also appears to hamper the upward mobility of advantaged women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women have made remarkable progress in access to and attainment of higher education; however, gender differences in college major contribute to gender stratification in the labor market (Jacobs 1996). This paper explores the role that college major played in the change in the sex gap in pay from the 1960s/1970s to the 1980s/1990s. Multiple data sets ? the National Longitudinal Study ? Original Cohorts and the National Longitudinal Study of Youth, 1979, allowed for the creation of two independent cross-sections. The sample included young college-educated men and women who were in the labor force approximately 5 years after college. Results showed that changes in sex differences in major explained 16-30 percent of the decrease in the sex gap in pay over time. The gap in percent female of major declined, as did most of the gaps in broad college major categories. Changes in sex differences in returns to major explained zero-14 percent of the change in the sex gap in pay. Generally, changes in returns benefited men, particularly through an increase in returns to Science majors. Integration of college majors was an important part of the decline in the wage gap from the 1960s/1970s to the 1980s/1990s among college-educated men and women in the labor force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relational inequality theory looks to the relative power of actors to hoard job opportunities and exploit income opportunities to explain workplace wage distributions. Using matched Swedish employer-employee data on individual-workplace earnings for 2001 through 2007 we explore the utility of this model to explain variation across workplaces in wage gaps between native Swedes and immigrants to Sweden. We find that the wage gap varies dramatically across workplaces, that it declines with increased immigrant employment and managerial representation, and expands when immigrants have higher education and are occupationally segregated from natives. These results are robust to alternative measures and model specifications. The exploitation mechanism is evident and the general results are stronger in high inequality workplaces and for white collar employees, contexts in which we expect workplace wage bargaining to be more frequent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Income inequality within the U.S. has increased in recent decades, while the welfare safety net has continually eroded. An important finding in criminology is that conditions of extreme disadvantage are linked with higher rates of violence. Similarly, prior studies find an inverse relationship between violent crime rates and government spending on social programs. Few studies have examined whether the effects of structural disadvantage and public welfare spending are the same for men's and women's arrest rates. To analyze gendered patterns of arrests for serious violence, we use a sample collected for the 100 largest U.S. cities (in 1970) for the decennial Census years of 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000. Consistent with earlier findings, our results suggest that economic disadvantage at the city level is significantly and positively associated with serious violent arrest rates, and this association appears to be the same for men's and women's arrests. Public welfare spending in the form of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and its later equivalent Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), is significantly and negatively associated with women's, but not men's, arrests rates for serious violence. Interestingly, Earned Income Tax Credit spending appears to be significantly and negatively associated with both men's and women's arrests for serious violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous simulation studies have shown a powerful inhibitory effect of couple-level homogeneity on global inequality. This effect appears counterintuitive in both its strength and its asymmetry: suppressing couple-level heterogeneity inhibits global inequality, but enhancing the former has little effect on the latter. Here, we show that this effect can be seen as arising from a general relationship between heterogeneity and inequality in two-group systems (e.g., men and women), such that the degree of inequality between groups is bounded by the degree of heterogeneity in cross-group pairs. We show that this bound applies regardless of how the pairs in question are created, and provide an extension of the result to cases with unequal numbers of group members. We discuss some implications of this result for the relationship of family processes (e.g., specialization and opportunity sharing) to the enhancement or inhibition of male/female wage inequality. We also demonstrate how a decomposition based on the inequality bound can be use to assess the extent to which within-couple inequality exceeds the minimum level possible given the degree of overall stratification. This decomposition is applied to US wage data over a 20 year period, revealing distinct trends in the pattern of couple versus global inequality. Our findings suggest a need for more focused research on mechanisms that suppress, as well as amplify, differences in economic outcomes within couples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how skewed resource endowments influence third-person justice evaluations towards men's and women's earnings. We hypothesize that in resource-equal sub-populations evaluators show in-group favoritism and that in resource-unequal sub-populations evaluators show high-status-group favoritism. We conducted two representative population surveys and a student survey in Germany, yielding more than 5,000 participants. Attitudes to fairness were measured via the factorial survey method. Results show that women and men in both population samples ascribe higher wages to male employees and that social science students show in-group-favoritism. Eastern German respondents exhibit smaller gender differences in their ratings which differ significantly from Western Germans. The results show that perceptions of fairness are influenced by the skewness of resource endowments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Military expenditures have escalated over the last three decades in both developed and less developed countries, without a corresponding expansion of military personnel. Spending has instead been directed towards hi-tech weaponry, what we refer to as the "new" military. We hypothesize that this new, increasingly capital-intensive military is no longer a pathway of upward mobility or employer of last resort for many uneducated, unskilled, or unemployed people, with significant consequences for those individuals and society as a whole. One such consequence, we argue, is an increase in income inequality. We test this hypothesis with cross-national panel models, estimated for eighty-three developed and less developed countries from 1970 to 2000. Findings indicate that military capital-intensiveness, as measured by military expenditures per soldier, exacerbates income inequality net of control variables. Neither total military expenditures/GDP nor military participation has a significant effect. It appears from these findings that today's "new" military establishment is abrogating its historical role as an equalizing force in society, with important policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women now surpass men in college completion and women attain bachelor's and graduate degrees at rates that equal or exceed men's. Despite this progress, sex segregation in fields of study persists. Men are more likely than women to major in science, particularly physical science and engineering, and data indicate that gender convergence among science majors is not likely in the near future. Explanations for the persisting shortfall of women in the physical sciences and engineering must account for broader trends in education and the consequences of women's major choice for their careers and family lives. Using data from the 1980 to 2000 Census and the 2005 American Community Survey we analyze trends over time in highly-educated women's occupational choices and the consequences of their choices in terms of marriage, fertility and earnings. Women's career choices, especially in high-status, demanding occupations in the sciences, have consequences for all three outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With only a few exceptions - Uruguay, Costa Rica, Venezuela - the countries of Latin America have the highest levels of income inequality in the world. Recent evidence indicates that, in absolute terms, the lowest income groups have advanced hardly at all during the past twenty years; in fact, they have fallen behind when measured against progress by the middle and upper classes. These observations are particularly notable in light of the wave of democratization that swept across Latin American countries in the 1980's and 1990's when full citizenship rights were extended to all, or nearly all, the adult population. This paper deals with one specific policy transformation that occurred in the context of a seminal shift in Colombian politics. Given Deborah Yashar's convincing argument that several Latin American nation-states underwent regime transformations in the twentieth century, moving from what she calls a corporatist citizenship model to a neoliberal citizenship regime, this paper seeks to understand what that transition looks like in the context of one economic policy: land reform. I argue that there were three specific barriers acting against the successful implementation of land reform in Colombia: 1. a general decline in social rights as part of the neoliberal citizenship regime 2. a discursive maneuver to police the boundary of ethnic identity and minority groups' access to collective goods 3. an ideological remnant of the past known as "Latin American exceptionalism," where ethnic and racial exclusion are taboo subjects [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last several decades, the United States has become more unjust and more unequal, with wealth and income inequality reaching stratospheric levels. Yet, it seems that much of the populace has grown more quiescent than ever. This paper, as such, considers why the disenfranchised mobilize so rarely. In the wake of the bourgeoning literature on the mass media and US political culture, it makes sense to refocus scholarly attention on the workplace. I maintain that the workplace functions as the primary institution that legitimates and reproduces the extant socio-political order. I organize the paper around three distinct but very interrelated problems. The first involves how capital converts the purchase of labor power into useful labor, and how it induces consent among subordinate workers. The second involves how capital organizes the labor process in ways that reproduce the social relations of capitalist production. And the third, which attempts to conclude on an optimistic note, involves how workers disrupt the labor process in order to accommodate their own ends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study analyses the gender pay gap in private-sector management positions based on the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) for the years 2001-2008. It focuses on occupational gender segregation, and on the effects of this inequality on earnings levels and gender wage differentials in management positions. Our paper is, to our knowledge, the first in Germany to use time-constant unobserved heterogeneity and gender-specific promotion probabilities to estimate wages and wage differentials for persons in managerial positions. The results of the fixed-effects model show that working in a more "female" job, as opposed to a more "male" job, affects only women's wages negatively. This result remains stable after controlling for human capital endowments and other effects. Mechanisms of the devaluation of jobs not primarily held by men also negatively affect pay in management positions (evaluative discrimination) and are even more severe for women (allocative discrimination). However, the effect is non-linear; the wage penalties for women occur only in "integrated" (more equally male/female) jobs as opposed to typically male jobs, and not in typically female jobs. The devaluation of occupations that are not primarily held by men becomes even more evident when promotion probabilities are taken into account. An Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition of the wage differential between men and women in management positions shows that the full model explains 65 percent of the gender pay gap. In other words: Thirty-five percent remain unexplained; this portion reflects, for example, time-varying social and cultural conditions, such as discriminatory policies and practices in the labor market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large body of work indicates that female-dominated jobs pay less than gender-integrated jobs. Only a handful of studies have analyzed differences in access to flexible work arrangements between female-dominated and integrated jobs, and their findings are inconclusive. The current study draws on national data to explore differences in access to flexible work scheduling by the gender composition of women's and men's jobs. I find that those who work in integrated occupations, industries, or jobs are more likely to have access to flexible scheduling. Compensating wage differentials do not explain differences in access to flexible scheduling, as women and men do not take jobs with lower pay in return for greater access to flexibility. Instead, jobs with higher pay offer greater flexibility. Men who have female supervisors are more likely to have access to flexible scheduling, but women who have female supervisors are not more likely to have access to flexible scheduling. Despite popular perceptions, female-dominated jobs do not offer greater flexibility to women or to men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]