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Wave nonlinearity significantly influences wave attenuation and can cause sediment transport imbalances in vegetated zones, impacting shoreline stability and ecosystem-based coastal defences. Despite its importance, the parameterisation and mechanisms of wave nonlinearity evolution over flexible vegetation remain unclear. This study examines the mechanisms behind non-breaking wave nonlinearity evolution over flexible vegetation and provides parameterisation of wave nonlinearity, based on experimental data collected by Anderson and Smith (2014). The study derives a new set of empirical formulae for predicting wave nonlinearity in Spartina alterniflora, which considers Ursell number, relative vegetation width, vegetation submergence, and vegetation density. The predictions made using these formulae are in good agreement with the measurements. The results indicate a decrease in wave skewness across the span of vegetation, whereas wave asymmetry increases until it reaches a maximum before decreasing. The findings suggest a preferential dissipation of high harmonics compared to low harmonics in the vegetation zone. Additionally, bispectrum analysis reveals that vegetation enhances the difference interaction while suppressing the sum interaction between wave components. The findings enable improvements in our understanding of wave nonlinearity in vegetation, providing better predictive capabilities for wave attenuation and sediment transport, which are crucial for the design and optimization of coastal defence systems. • Non-breaking wave skewness keeps decreasing over the vegetation, while wave asymmetry initially rises to a maximum and then decreases. • Vegetation enhances the difference interaction while suppressing the sum interaction between wave components. • A new empirical formula for predicting non-breaking wave nonlinearity takes into account both vegetation properties and wave characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Storms and extremely energetic events may significantly impact the form and structure of beaches, and so cause erosive processes and coastal damages. Efficient management actions require an up-to-date and accurate knowledge of beach morphological changes, with the shoreline position being a good indicator of such changes. This work proposes the use of the open-source Shoreline Analysis and Extraction Tool (SAET) software for the definition of satellite-derived shorelines (SDSs) from L8 and Sentinel-2 imagery to reveal the shoreline position changes at the beaches of the Ebro Delta, NE Spain. Spatial-temporal models (STMs) of shoreline changes enable a characterisation of how the beaches responded to the storms of 2020. In conjunction with wave data, STMs enable an analysis of the erosive response to storm events, as well as a monitoring of subsequent beach recovery in the short and medium term (<1 year). Results show how Storm Gloria (January 2020, Hs max = 7.62 m) acted as a disruptive event and shifting point in the shoreline trend. As a response to that storm, major erosive processes occurred along the delta that caused an average shoreline retreat of 47 m. A progressive recovery during the spring and summer was mainly associated with periods of low wave energy. Nevertheless, by the end of the year a complete recovery had been achieved for about half of the coast, while the other half showed an average erosion of more than 10 m when compared to the pre-storm situation. Both the erosive and the recovery processes took place unevenly on different sections of the coast, probably dependent on factors such as the orientation of the beach and the pattern of longitudinal sediment transport along the coast. • Automatic shoreline extraction from Sentinel 2 and Landsat 8 imagery using SAET. • Pre and post-storm characterisation of SDS position in time and space using STMs. • Storm Gloria (January 2020) caused an unprecedented and heterogeneous impact on the Ebro Delta. • Slow recovery occurred in the months following the event conditioned by orientation and wave patterns. • About half of the delta showed a significant shoreline retreat by the end of 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training walls to improve navigability at river mouths alter natural sediment transport regimes, occasioning morphological changes in the nearby littoral zone. In addition, harbor channels and shorelines are susceptible to on-going changes in global circulation conditions and large-scale engineering interventions. Here we present a process-based modeling approach to determine the relationship between spatial patterns of erosion and deposition, seasonal river discharge, and the geometry of coastal defenses. The study uses the Magdalena River delta as an example, where the redistribution of freshwater and sediments after the construction of the "Tajamar" training wall heralded significant morphological changes in the area. The numerical experiments are used to describe how the erosion and deposition patterns within the estuary and delta of the Magdalena River are linked to the seasonal cycle of the Magdalena River and to the geometry of the hard structures. We demonstrate that the construction of the Tajamar and complementary hard structures would have decreased depositional fluxes in the littoral zone, leading to the observed shoreline retreat and disappearance of an extensive coastal lagoon system. It is shown that an aperture in the training walls may help restore the wetlands without compromising navigability. In addition, projected increases in mean sea level are shown to decrease velocities within the lower estuary, potentially causing increased sedimentation within the channel and more complex conditions for the management of safe navigation over the Magdalena River estuary. • Seawall construction on the Magdalena River, Colombia, resulted in the redistribution of freshwater and sediments. • Numerical experiments provide evidence that shoreline retreat was caused by the altered sedimentation regime. • A diversion system in the training walls may help restore sediment supply to the shorelines without risking navigability. • Sea level rise may increase rates of sedimentation within the estuary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rising sea levels are expected to cause widespread coastal recession over the course of the next century. In this work, new insight into the response of sandy beaches to sea level rise is obtained through a series of comprehensive experiments using monochromatic and random waves in medium scale laboratory wave flumes. Beach profile development from initially planar profiles, and a 2/3 power law profile, exposed to wave conditions that formed barred or bermed profiles and subsequent profile evolution following rises in water level and the same wave conditions are presented. Experiments assess profile response to a step-change in water level as well as the influence of sediment deposition above the still water level (e.g. overwash). A continuity based profile translation model (PTM) is applied to both idealised and measured shoreface profiles, and is used to predict overwash and deposition volumes above the shoreline. Quantitative agreement with the Bruun Rule (and variants of it) is found for measured shoreline recession for both barred and bermed beach profiles. There is some variability between the profiles at equilibrium at the two different water levels. Under these idealised conditions, deviations between the original Bruun Rule, the modification by Rosati et al. (2013) and the PTM model predictions are of the order of 15% and all these model predictions are within ±30% of the observed shoreline recession. Measurements of the recession of individual contour responses, such as the shoreline, may be subject to local profile variability; therefore, a measure of the mean recession of the profile is also obtained by averaging the recession of discrete contours throughout the active profile. The mean recession only requires conservation of volume, not conservation of profile shape, to be consistent with the Bruun Rule concept, and is found to be in better agreement with all three model predictions than the recession measured at the shoreline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study the numerical model Delft3D is implemented on high-resolution grids to evaluate beach morphological response to groins and submerged breakwaters under sea-breeze conditions. The numerical model is compared with field measurements from three sites on the northern Yucatan coast of Mexico. At these sites, relatively low energy waves with significant wave heights arrive at a steep oblique angle to the coast that drives high sediment transport rates. After calibration of the model, by adjustment of model free parameters, the model results show accurate representations of the diurnal variation of hydrodynamic conditions (wave height and current velocity) driven by the daily sea-breezes. Moreover, the morphodynamic model shows a good representation of the rapid morphological changes, particularly of the accretion pattern caused by a temporary groin and the subsequent recovery following the structure removal. However, erosion patterns at the downdrift areas of structures were not reproduced, owing to the numerical model limitations of simulating swash morphodynamics. Model validation with field observations of the beach response behind submerged breakwaters enabled the model to be used for a parametric study. Following previous work, new equations are developed in the present study that show an improvement for predicting shoreline changes near submerged breakwaters under sea-breeze conditions. Despite the limitations in reproducing downdrift erosion, overall the high-resolution modelling approach satisfactorily simulates the hydrodynamic and the updrift accretion responses to coastal structures on sandy beaches with oblique waves. • Simulations of beach change near groins and submerged breakwaters are performed. • Results are compared to measurements at three sites with high sediment transport rates. • New equations show improved prediction of shoreline change near submerged structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field-tested numerical model simulations are used to estimate the effects of an inlet, ebb shoal, wave height, wave direction, and shoreline geometry on the variability of bathymetric change on a curved coast with a migrating inlet and strong nearshore currents. The model uses bathymetry measured along the southern shoreline of Martha's Vineyard, MA, and was validated with waves and currents observed from the shoreline to ~10-m water depth. Between 2007 and 2014, the inlet was open and the shoreline along the southeast corner of the island eroded ~200 m and became sharper. Between 2014 and 2015, the corner accreted and became smoother as the inlet closed. Numerical simulations indicate that variability of sediment transport near the corner shoreline depends more strongly on its radius of curvature (a proxy for the separation of tidal flows from the coast) than on the presence of the inlet, the ebb shoal, or wave height and direction. As the radius of curvature decreases (as the corner sharpens), tidal asymmetry of nearshore currents is enhanced, leading to more sediment transport near the shoreline over several tidal cycles. The results suggest that feedbacks between shoreline geometry and inner-shelf flows can be important to coastal erosion and accretion in the vicinity of an inlet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid deterministic modelling of shoreline evolution at regional and coastal-scheme scale enables Monte-Carlo simulations by which long-term shoreline statistics can be estimated. This paper describes UnaLinea, a fast, accurate finite difference solver of the one-line sediment continuity equation. The model is verified for the evolution of an initially straight shoreline of a plane beach subject to regular breaking waves at constant angle of incidence in the presence of either a groyne or a continuous single-point feed of sediment. Grid convergence and stability tests are used to obtain accurate, stable results, with satisfactory computational efficiency. Influences of wave input filtering and event-based sediment loading are considered. The rapid deterministic model is applied to Monte-Carlo simulations of the evolution of the west coast of Calabria, Italy for different scenarios including increased sediment load from a river and selected beach nourishment. The potential role of probabilistic shoreline evolution in regional coastal flood-risk assessment is explored through application to an idealised stretch of the Holderness coastline, U.K., where flood depths and expected damage are estimated for a 1000 year return period event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A morphodynamic model based on the wave-driven alongshore sediment transport, including cross-shore transport in a simplified way and neglecting tides, is presented and applied to the Zandmotor mega-nourishment on the Dutch Delfland coast. The model is calibrated with the bathymetric data surveyed from January 2012 to March 2013 using measured offshore wave forcing. The calibrated model reproduces accurately the surveyed evolution of the shoreline and depth contours until March 2015. According to the long-term modeling using different wave climate scenarios based on historical data, for the next 30-yr period, the Zandmotor will display diffusive behavior, asymmetric feeding to the adjacent beaches, and slow migration to the NE. Specifically, the Zandmotor amplitude will have decayed from 960 m to about 350 m with a scatter of only about 40 m associated to climate variability. The modeled coastline diffusivity during the 3-yr period is 0.0021 m 2 /s, close to the observed value of 0.0022 m 2 /s. In contrast, the coefficient of the classical one-line diffusion equation is 0.0052 m 2 /s. Thus, the lifetime prediction, here defined as the time needed to reduce the initial amplitude by a factor 5, would be 90 yr instead of the classical diffusivity prediction of 35 yr. The resulting asymmetric feeding to adjacent beaches produces 100 m seaward shift at the NE section and 80 m seaward shift at the SW section. Looking at the variability associated to the different wave climates, the migration rate and the slight shape asymmetry correlate with the wave power asymmetry (W vs N waves) while the coastline diffusivity correlates with the proportion of high-angle waves, suggesting that the Dutch coast is near the high-angle wave instability threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term decadal-scale shoreline change is an important parameter for quantifying the stability of coastal systems. The decadal-scale coastal change is controlled by processes that occur on short time scales (such as storms) and long-term processes (such as prevailing waves). The ability to predict decadal-scale shoreline change is not well established and the fundamental physical processes controlling this change are not well understood. Here we investigate the processes that create large-scale long-term shoreline change along the Outer Banks of North Carolina, an uninterrupted 60 km stretch of coastline, using both observations and a numerical modeling approach. Shoreline positions for a 24-yr period were derived from aerial photographs of the Outer Banks. Analysis of the shoreline position data showed that, although variable, the shoreline eroded an average of 1.5 m/yr throughout this period. The modeling approach uses a three-dimensional hydrodynamics-based numerical model coupled to a spectral wave model and simulates the full 24-yr time period on a spatial grid running on a short (second scale) time-step to compute the sediment transport patterns. The observations and the model results show similar magnitudes (O(10 5 m 3 /yr)) and patterns of alongshore sediment fluxes. Both the observed and the modeled alongshore sediment transport rates have more rapid changes at the north of our section due to continuously curving coastline, and possible effects of alongshore variations in shelf bathymetry. The southern section with a relatively uniform orientation, on the other hand, has less rapid transport rate changes. Alongshore gradients of the modeled sediment fluxes are translated into shoreline change rates that have agreement in some locations but vary in others. Differences between observations and model results are potentially influenced by geologic framework processes not included in the model. Both the observations and the model results show higher rates of erosion (∼−1 m/yr) averaged over the northern half of the section as compared to the southern half where the observed and modeled averaged net shoreline changes are smaller (<0.1 m/yr). The model indicates accretion in some shallow embayments, whereas observations indicate erosion in these locations. Further analysis identifies that the magnitude of net alongshore sediment transport is strongly dominated by events associated with high wave energy. However, both big- and small- wave events cause shoreline change of the same order of magnitude because it is the gradients in transport, not the magnitude, that are controlling shoreline change. Results also indicate that alongshore momentum is not a simple balance between wave breaking and bottom stress, but also includes processes of horizontal vortex force, horizontal advection and pressure gradient that contribute to long-term alongshore sediment transport. As a comparison to a more simple approach, an empirical formulation for alongshore sediment transport is used. The empirical estimates capture the effect of the breaking term in the hydrodynamics-based model, however, other processes that are accounted for in the hydrodynamics-based model improve the agreement with the observed alongshore sediment transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental results involving shoreface nourishment scenarios are presented. The experiments are performed at small scale and the effects of nourishment placement and timing in relation to long-term cross-shore profile development are investigated. Four different nourishment scenarios are tested experimentally, with nourishment positioned both in the trough of a pre-developed profile as well as along the bar of the profile. The results demonstrate that under all scenarios the erosion of the shoreline slows relative to the case without nourishment. The two cases where the nourishment was placed along the bar reduced erosion of the shoreline more compared to the two cases with nourishment in the trough onshore of the bar. Compared to past experiments on nourishment presented in the literature, the present experiments were run for a longer duration, and the concepts of equilibrium profile and the development towards such an equilibrium were investigated. Curiously, the experiments showed a reversal of the sediment transport rate from being primarily offshore directed across the entire profile to onshore directed in the inner surf zone region closest to the shoreline. This reversal of transport rate occurred without changing the incoming wave conditions and resulted in deposition at the shoreline. This either questions the existence of equilibrium beach profiles or at the very least shows that the development towards such an equilibrium will not always be monotonic in time. • Shoreface nourishments are performed at model scale investigating the influence of timing and placement on long term profile development. • Placement of nourishment can disturb the cross-shore profile shape over long time. • After long time running with the same wave climate the transport rate changed from offshore directed to onshore directed in the inner surf zone. • The change in sign was related to cessation of wave-breaking and resulted in sand returning to an otherwise eroding beach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid 2D/one-line shoreline models are becoming increasingly applied over the mesoscale (101–102 years; 101–102 km) to inform coastal management. These models typically apply the one-line theory to simulate changes in shoreline morphology based on littoral drift gradients calculated from a 2DH coupled wave, flow, and sediment transport model. However, the key boundary conditions needed to effectively apply hybrid 2D/one-line models and their applicability beyond simple planform morphologies are uncertain, which can potentially comprise coastal management decisions. To address these uncertainties, an extensive numerical modelling campaign is carried out to both assess the sensitivity and calibrate an advanced hybrid 2D/one-line model (MIKE21) against six variables in three different sandy coastal system morphologies: (a) a simple planform morphology with a gentle sloping profile, (b) a simple planform morphology with a steep sloping profile, and (c) a complex planform morphology. The six variables considered include nearshore discretisation, bathymetry, bed friction, sand grain diameter, sand porosity, sediment grading, and the weir coefficient of hard defence structures. Five key conclusions are derived from the sensitivity testing and calibration results. First , the optimal boundary conditions for modelling shoreline evolution vary according to coastal geomorphology and processes. Second , specifying boundary conditions within physically realistic ranges does not guarantee reliable shoreline evolution predictions. Third , nearshore discretisation should be treated as a typical calibration parameter as (a) the finest discretisation does not guarantee the most accurate predictions, and (b) defining a discretisation based on process length scales also does not guarantee reliable predictions. Fourth , hybrid 2D/one-line models are not valid for application in complex planform morphologies plausibly because of the one-line theory assumption of a spatially invariable closure depth. Fifth , hybrid 2D/one-line models have limited applicability in simple planform morphologies where the active beach profile is subject to direct human modification, plausibly due to the one-line theory assumption of a constant time-averaged coastal profile form. These findings provide key theoretical insights into the drivers of shoreline evolution in sandy coastal systems, which have practical implications for refining the continued application of shoreline evolution models. • The hybrid 2D/one-line shoreline modelling approach is tested in three coastal morphologies. • Optimal boundary conditions correspond to observed coastal morphology. • The nearshore discretisation in shoreline models should be treated as a calibration parameter. • The hybrid 2D/one-line shoreline modelling approach is limited to simple planform morphologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, large-scale experimental data are presented showing the beach profile morphological evolution induced by four different bi-chromatic wave conditions characterized by very similar energy content between them but varying the modulation period. Important differences were observed in the resultant beach profiles as a function of the wave group periods. Larger variability in the profile evolution is generally observed for larger wave group periods and, more importantly, as the wave group period increases the distance between the generated breaker bar and the shoreline increases. The measured primary wave height to depth ratio ( γ ) increases with the wave group period, which is consistent with the observed larger wave height at the breaking location. The primary wave breaking location is also observed at increasing distances with respect to the initial shoreline as the wave group period increases. The variation in γ with wave group period is related to the selective energy dissipation of the higher primary frequency component ( f 1 ) during the wave group shoaling. Broad bandwith conditions (reduced wave group period) lead to larger dissipation of wave heights at the f 1 component relative to f 2 resulting in a reduction in the wave modulation and primary wave height at the breaking location. Suspended sediment fluxes obtained from collocated velocity and sediment concentration measurements in the surf zone showed a consistently larger contribution of the mean return flow to the suspended sediment fluxes compared with the wave group and primary wave components. The distinct beach profile evolution in terms of bar location is interpreted from an increasing distance of the mean breakpoint location and the location of maximum return flow with respect to the shoreline as the wave group period increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper concerns numerical modelling of the impact on the littoral drift and the shoreline from groynes forming a field of equidistant and identical groynes. The most important effect of a groyne on the shoreline morphology is that the littoral drift is blocked completely or partially. A local reduction in the littoral drift around the groyne introduces alongshore gradients in the alongshore sediment transport and sedimentation and erosion around the groyne which will cause re-orientation of the bed contours towards the prevailing wave direction until an equilibrium is reached. A discussion of this mechanism is presented including effects of scales, e.g. the effect of the relative length of the groynes (compared to the width of the surf zone). The model results indicate a strong dependency of the reduction in littoral drift on the initial geometric bypass ratio (Q geo *), which is defined from the groyne length and the littoral transport on the undisturbed coastline; Q geo * is the transport occurring outside the tip of the groynes divided by the total transport. It is found that the sensitivity of the littoral drift to variations in groyne spacing and the angle, of the approaching waves, is inversely proportional to Q geo *. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engineered and natural submerged coastal structures (e.g., submerged breakwaters and reefs) modify incident wave fields and thus can alter hydrodynamic processes adjacent to coastlines. Although submerged structures are generally assumed to promote beach protection by dissipating waves offshore and creating sheltered conditions in their lee, their interaction with waves can result in mean wave-driven circulation patterns that may either promote shoreline accretion or erosion. Here, we analyse the mean flow patterns and shoreline water levels (wave runup) in the lee of idealised impermeable submerged structures with a phase-resolved nonhydrostatic numerical model. Waves propagating over submerged structures can drive either a 2-cell mean (wave-averaged) circulation, which is characterised by diverging flows behind the structure and at the shoreline, or 4-cell circulation, with converging flows at the shoreline and diverging flows in the immediate lee of the structure. The numerical results show that the mode of circulation can be predicted with a set of relationships depending on the incoming wave heights, the structure crest level, and distance to the shoreline (or structure depth). Qualitative agreement between the mean flow and proxies for the sediment transport using an energetics approach suggest that the mean flow can be a robust proxy for inferring sediment transport patterns. For the cases considered, the submerged structures had a minimal influence on shoreline wave setup and wave runup despite the wave energy dissipation by the structures due to alongshore wave energy fluxes in the lee. Consequently, these results suggest that the coastal protection provided by the range of impermeable submerged structures we modelled is primarily due to their capacity to promote beach accretion. • A phase-resolved model simulates hydrodynamic interactions with submerged structures. • Waves can drive 2-cell or 4-cell mean circulation and sediment transport patterns. • Bottom shear stresses presented an overall similar pattern to the mean currents. • We develop a predictor for the flow patterns based on wave and structure parameters. • The submerged structures had limited influence on shoreline setup and wave runup. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays there are numerous computational tools to forecast the evolution of the shoreline position in sandy coast environments. However, few studies have waited for the time horizon of the predictions to actually check the accuracy of the forecasted scenarios. Thus, this work proposed to assess the accuracy of medium-term predictions made with Long-Term Configuration (LTC) and GENEralised model for SImulating Shoreline change (GENESIS) numerical models for the time horizon of 15-year and evaluate the models' performance in forecasting the actual status of a complex sandy coastal stretch in 2018, the targeting year. The projection premises were already presented in Baptista et al. (2014) on which observational data used to calibrate and blind hindcast future scenarios of shoreline development was discussed. The case study focused on an area located downdrift of Poço da Cruz groin, on the northwest Portuguese coast, and considered two beach sectors in accordance with Baptista et al. (2014): sector AC, about 3.5 km long, and sector AB, about 2.4 km long and included in the first one. The whole coastal stretch is composed of sandy beaches, and past trends highlight erosion downdrift of Poço da Cruz groin due to the interruption of sediment transport. A monitoring program performed by the University of Aveiro between 2003 and 2018 (corresponding to the period of simulation presented in Baptista et al., 2014), including six topographic surveys, was considered for comparison with the projections previously made. An additional topographic survey performed in 2018, within COSMO programme, was also considered. Simulations results have proved divergent performances of LTC and GENESIS models, despite the equity of inputs parameters and modelling processes. It is concluded that GENESIS and LTC, considering the typical (TYP) wave climate (randomly generated to represent the typical frequencies of wave height and direction during five years), create an envelope (GENESIS below and LTC above) to the real average results. For TYP, GENESIS underestimates the mean retreat rates up to 23 m in sector AB and up to 23 m in AC; LTC overestimates the retreat up to 33 m in sector AB and up to 13 m in AC. Conversely, observed (OBS) wave climate (shorter characterisation period but maintaining the registered data sequence) projections overestimate the shoreline retreat in both coastal stretches, suggesting that a larger characterisation period should be more important than maintaining the sequence of recorded waves. For OBS, the models overestimate the mean retreat rates in both sectors: GENESIS overestimates up to 90 m in sector AB and up to 51 m in AC; LTC overestimates up to 60 m in AB and up to 60 m in AC. Also, the consideration of the artificial nourishment operations executed during the simulation period leads to better results in the LTC, which was overestimating the erosion rate. This showed that if all man-made interventions could be anticipated, the average retreat in the main sector, AC, would only be up to 5 % different from the projections made by Baptista et al. (2014) with LTC model and TYP wave climate. • Checked accuracy of 15-year forecasts. • Checked performance of LTC and GENESIS shoreline evolution models. • The wave sampling period used in calibration has relevant impact on forecasts made. • LTC and GENESIS create an envelope to the real average retreat surveyed. • Better projections would be achieved if planed interventions were known in advance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearshore submerged structures made of sand-filled geosystems are an interesting use for this type of coastal protection technology. These systems have an advantage over more traditional materials such as concrete units or rock, which is the limited and non-permanent impact on natural coastal processes. On top of that are also some important research achievements and improvements at the level of the materials. However, at more exposed hydraulic conditions under high wave energy its application is still hampered by the lack of knowledge about their performance. This paper describes research results based on a series of laboratory measurements of the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic change produced in the vicinity of submerged nearshore structures. An analysis of the different model outputs produced, with respect to sediment transport, wave reflection and wave-induced pressures, has been made and is discussed throughout the paper. Such a comparative analysis provides insights into the efficiency of each defence scheme in maintaining a beach and in protecting the shoreline. The sand-filled geosystems as nearshore submerged structures proved to be efficient in retarding the offshore movement of sediments and in maintaining the shoreline, even if instabilities due to elements' displacement and local scour have been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents a simple approximation for assessment of the alongshore sediment transport rate on dissipative weakly curvilinear coasts. The approximation considers spatial variations in the wave angle and energy, sediment size, beach slope and type of wave breaking inside the surf zone. Similar approaches were employed in the past for coasts forced by high oblique waves where shoreline undulations frequently develop. With our approach, we can analyze more realistic situations, i.e., alongshore relations between the sediment size and the beach slope. The general expression for alongshore sediment transport is made explicit using a simple model for wave propagation. The solution is used to examine the implications of the behavior of alongshore sediment transport on shoreline evolution. After the analysis of the effects of variations in the wave conditions, the alongshore beach slope distribution and the shoreline geometry, three different shoreline tendencies were obtained for undulating shorelines: migration for changes in deep-water wave angle; amplitude growth for increases in wave height or period and changes in shoreline geometry; and wavelength changes and asymmetries for coasts with alongshore changes in beach slope. Our results also indicate that wave setup may enhance the formation of undulating shoreline features. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Modeling hydrodynamics and sediment transport inside a multi-inlet wetland system is a challenging task due to constraints on model efficiency, accuracy and representation of physics, the scarcity of field data for model validation, and more importantly, the availability of high-resolution data sets of channel bathymetry. Lack of field data sets, model assumptions, and limitations often lead to wrong interpretation of the system's nature. To correctly predict the changes in governing hydrodynamics and morphology of shallow wetland environments, it is essential to resolve the channel properties with the best possible accuracy. In this study, we consider the importance of two factors, numerical model grid resolution around channel shorelines, and bathymetry surveys, in improving the interior channel and mudflat hydrodynamics. Channel shoreline element size is observed to be an essential factor in time-varying channel volume estimation. Lower model resolution in channels inside a marsh can provide good agreement with in-situ surface elevation data, even though the channel surface-velocity phase lag, and velocity magnitude and asymmetry are inaccurate. A higher grid resolution at the channel berms and the high-density channel survey help define the time-varying lateral shoaling bathymetry, cross-section area, and bottom friction, and improve the corresponding model skill and tidal wave properties significantly. We have selected Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge, a rapidly eroding salt-marsh system in Delaware Bay, to compare model skills for different hypsometric conditions. Model performance is evaluated during two storm conditions; Hurricane Sandy (2012) and Hurricane Joaquin (2015), using tide gauges located on the marsh interior channels. • Poor grid resolution around marsh-channel berm creates artificial channel convergence and inaccurate tidal wave characteristics. • Topo-bathymetry field survey and bias correction improves channel hypsometry and numerical model reliability significantly. • Inaccurate channel bathymetry and inadequate resolution might lead to acceptable surface elevation but poor tidal velocity field. • The conventional grid generation methods based on sparse cross channel surveys is not sufficient for wetland models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents a numerical study of the non-linear development of alongshore undulations up to fully developed quasi-steady equilibrium. A numerical model which describes the longshore sediment transport along arbitrarily shaped shorelines is applied, based on a spectral wave model, a depth integrated flow model, a wave-phase resolving sediment transport description and a one-line shoreline model. First the length of the shoreline undulations is determined in the linear regime using a stability analysis. Next the further evolution from the linear to the fully non-linear regime is described. In the fully non-linear regime down-drift spits and migrating shoreline undulations are described. Three different shoreline shapes are found depending on the wave conditions: undulations with no spits, undulations with shore parallel spit and undulations with reconnecting spits. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a new numerical model for shoreline change which can be used to model the evolution of shorelines with large curvature. The model is based on a one-line formulation in terms of coordinates which follow the shape of the shoreline, instead of the more common approach where the two orthogonal horizontal directions are used. The volume error in the sediment continuity equation which is thereby introduced is removed through an iterative procedure. The model treats the shoreline changes by computing the sediment transport in a 2D coastal area model, and then integrating the sediment transport field across the coastal profile to obtain the longshore sediment transport variation along the shoreline. The model is used to compute the evolution of a shoreline with a 90° change in shoreline orientation; due to this drastic change in orientation a migrating shoreline spit develops in the model. The dimensions of the spits evolving in the model compare favorably to previous model results and to field observation of the Skaw Spit in the north of Denmark. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This contribution describes the development, calibration and verification of a 1-D behaviour-orientated shoreline prediction model. The model primarily encapsulates shoreline displacement forced by wave-driven cross-shore sediment transport. Hysteresis effects are shown to be important and are included in the model, whereby present shoreline change is influenced by past hydro-/morpho-dynamic conditions. The potential magnitude of shoreline change increases with incident wave power and the degree of disequilibrium. The latter disequilibrium term (Ω eq − Ω) is expressed in terms of the time-evolving equilibrium (Ω eq) and instantaneous (Ω) dimensionless fall velocities and dictates the direction of shoreline movement. Following Wright et al. (1985) the equilibrium fall velocity is defined as a function of the weighted antecedent conditions and is a proxy for the evolving beach state. The decay rate of the weighting function used to compute Ω eq is a model free parameter determined by calibration against measured data, which physically reflects the degree of observed ‘memory’ of the system. The decay in amplitude of this weighting function with time is controlled by a ‘memory decay’ term (ϕ), where the weighting reaches 10%, 1% and 0.1% at ϕ, 2ϕ and 3ϕ days prior to the current calculation time. The model is applied to two multi-year (6+ years) data sets incorporating hourly wave and weekly shoreline measurements, from two contrasting energetic sites in SE Australia. The first is the relatively dissipative, straight Gold Coast (QLD) and the second is a more intermediate embayed beach at Narrabeen (NSW). The model shows significant skill at hindcasting shoreline change at both sites, predicting approximately 60% of the total shoreline variability. The Gold Coast shoreline is dominated by a strong seasonal signal. Conversely, at the Narrabeen embayment, shoreline variability (and morphology) is more dynamic, responding at storm frequency. Evidence suggests that there is a strong coherence between the shoreline position and morphodynamic state and that both have response times characterised by ϕ. It is hypothesised that optimised ϕ values in the shoreline model physically relate to the efficiency of sediment exchanges between the shoreface and offshore bars and the prevalence of one- or two-dimensional horizontal circulation. The general success of this new shoreline model for hindcasting the observed shoreline behaviour at two distinctly different open-coast sites suggests that this approach may be suitable for broader application. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Indian River Inlet is located at roughly the mid-point of the Atlantic coast of Delaware and connects the ocean to two Delaware inland bays. Jetties constructed in 1940 have maintained the inlet for navigation purposes but have also acted as a barrier to net northerly alongshore sediment transport causing downdrift erosion. A mobile, land-based bypassing system was initiated in 1990 in an effort to counteract this erosion. Beach profile data from 1985 (pre-bypassing) until 2008 are used to investigate the effect of the sand bypassing system on beaches adjacent to the inlet. The downdrift beach experienced horizontal shoreline erosion between 10 and 60m during the pre-bypassing period but accreted 10–20m during the bypassing period. The mean shoreline location on the updrift beach during bypassing is 10–20m landward (erosion) of its position during the pre-bypassing period. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) amplitudes from analyses performed on mean-removed elevation surfaces during the periods of highest bypassed volume (average of 83% of design rate) showed that the influence of the bypassing system on the downdrift beach extends to about 1500m of the inlet. An EOF analysis showed that different morphologic responses were evident following the initiation of bypass operations. Temporal variations of shoreline and beach morphology were correlated to the temporal variations in bypassing rates on the downdrift beach only. The downdrift beach response was greatest near the inlet for larger bypassing volumes. Correlation in these instances occurred with a roughly 1-year time lag suggesting that the beach quickly redistributes the bypassed sand. EOF amplitude and shoreline response are weakly correlated to bypassed volumes when the system bypassed smaller volumes (average of 56% of design rate) of sand suggesting that there is a minimum bypassing rate, regardless of yearly variability, below which the effect on the downdrift beach is obscured. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present a new type of model for calculating morphological changes induced by the presence of breakwaters. The model combines a process based area model, used to calculate the sediment transport field in the two horizontal dimensions, with a simplified morphological updating scheme where the evolving cross-shore profile is described by a limited number of parameters. The hybrid morphological model is a strong tool for medium and long term modelling because it is cost effective while containing important features of the sediment transport description. Two versions of the model are developed in order to study the evolution of beach morphology: one suited for offshore breakwaters (1D model) and one mainly dedicated to coastal breakwaters (“1.5D” model). The version for offshore breakwaters is first presented and tested against field observations of salient evolution. The model is then applied to a model study of the principle correlations between evolving salients (spatial and temporal scales), the characteristic dimensions of the breakwater (distance to shore and alongshore length) and wave climate (wave height, normal and oblique wave incidence). The second version is applied to investigate in more detail the evolving morphology behind coastal breakwaters. It is demonstrated how the model is able to calculate the evolution of either salient or tombolo planforms, and furthermore it is shown that the results are in reasonable agreement with existing rules. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Multiple bar systems often show a cyclic net offshore directed migration with return periods on the order of years. Generally, a bar is generated near the shoreline, grows in height and width, while migrating offshore before finally decaying at the seaward limit of the surf zone. Based on a three-year hindcast of a bar cycle at Noordwijk (Netherlands) and on additional synthetic runs using a wave-averaged cross-shore process model, this study identifies the dominant mechanisms that govern the bar amplitude growth and decay during net interannual offshore migration. The bar amplitude response is particularly sensitive to the water depth above the bar crest, h Xb , and the angle of wave incidence, θ. These variables largely control the amount of waves breaking on the bar and the strength and cross-shore distribution of the associated longshore current. The longshore current has its maximum landward of the bar crest, inducing additional stirring of sediment on the landward bar slope and trough. The enhanced sediment concentration in the trough region shifts the cross-shore transports peak landward of the bar crest forcing bar amplitude growth during offshore migration. For increased h Xb -values wave breaking becomes less frequent, consequently reducing the influence of the longshore current on sediment stirring. Therefore, the resulting dominance of the cross-shore current results in a sediment transport peak at the bar crest causing bar amplitude decay. All four types of bar response (viz. all combinations of onshore/offshore migration and bar amplitude growth/decay) can occur for a single wave height and wave period combination, depending on h Xb and θ. Additional hindcast runs in which the wave direction was assumed time-invariant confirmed that h Xb and θ largely control the transient bar amplitude response. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper deals with field measurements of undulations of the bottom bathymetry along an otherwise straight coast at the Danish West Coast. Two bathymetric datasets and two time series of wave measurements are used in order to determine the following properties: the offshore extent of shoreline undulations, the amount of sediment transported alongshore in the shoreline undulations, the relationship between the shoreline undulations and longshore bars and the relationship between the morphology and the hydrodynamics. In one of the data sets the shoreline undulations are well correlated with undulations on the depth contours between −5m and +2m relative to mean sea level. In the other data set, only undulations on the depth contours between −1m and +1m are well correlated with the shoreline undulations. The main difference in the wave climate between the two locations is the orientation of the shoreline such that the wave incidence angle is more oblique on the section of shoreline with well correlated depth contours, suggesting that the well correlated depth contours are a result of the oblique wave incidence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A new numerical model was developed to simulate regional sediment transport and shoreline response in the vicinity of tidal inlets based on the one-line theory combined with the reservoir analogy approach for volumetric evolution of inlet shoals. Sand bypassing onshore and sheltering effects on wave action from the inlet bar and shoals were taken into account. The model was applied to unique field data from the south coast of Long Island, United States, including inlet opening and closure. The simulation area extended from Montauk Point to Fire Island Inlet, including Shinnecock and Moriches Inlets. A 20-year long time series of hindcast wave data at three stations along the coast were used as input data to the model. The capacity of the inlet shoals and bars to store sand was estimated based on measured cross-sectional areas of the inlets as well as on comprehensive bathymetric surveys of the areas around the inlet. Several types of sediment sources and sinks were represented, including beach fills, groin systems, jetty blocking, inlet bypassing, and flood shoal and ebb shoal feeding. The model simulations were validated against annual net longshore transport rates reported in the literature, measured shorelines, and recorded sediment volumes in the flood and ebb shoal complexes. Overall, the model simulations were in good agreement with the measured data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A numerical model is developed to compute the shoreline planform in a crenulate bay beach. The new model combines polar and Cartesian coordinates and can be used effectively to compute a hooked zone shoreline in the lee of upcoast headland. The model is calibrated using laboratory data with an incident wave angle ranging from 25° to 60°. The results of calibration and verification suggest that the ratio of the sediment transport parameters by wave and longshore current in this model is close to unity, and the computed shoreline planforms for the hooked and unhooked zones are in good agreement with the ones measured, especially when a bay is close to static equilibrium. In addition, the bay shape calculated by the present model is similar to that given by the well-known empirical parabolic equation for a bay in static equilibrium. The process of bay shape development from a straight beach to a static equilibrium bay is studied using laboratory experiments and the present numerical model. The temporal variations in the computed longshore sediment transport at different locations within a bay beach are analyzed. From this the decrease in the sediment transport becomes apparent while a bay beach changes its shape from straight toward a state of equilibrium. Based on this experience, it may be concluded that the present numerical model can produce a temporal change in the shoreline planform of a crenulate bay beach from a transition state to static equilibrium subject to seasonal wave action. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Novel laboratory experiments and numerical modelling have been performed to study the advection scales of suspended sediment in the swash zone. An experiment was designed specifically to measure only the sediment picked up seaward of the swash zone and during bore collapse. The advection scales and settling of this sediment were measured during the uprush along a rigid sediment-free beach face by a sediment trap located at varying cross-shore positions. Measurements were made using a number of repeated solitary broken waves or bores. Approximately 25% of the pre-suspended sediment picked up by the bores reaches the mid-swash zone (50% of the horizontal run-up distance), indicating the importance of the sediment advection in the lower swash zone. The pre-suspended sediment is sourced from a region seaward of the shoreline (still water line) which has a width of about 20% of the run-up distance. An Eulerian–Lagrangian numerical model is used to model the advection scales of the suspended sediment. The model resolves the hydrodynamics by solving the non-linear shallow water equations in an Eulerian framework and then solves the advection–diffusion equation for turbulence and suspended sediment in a Lagrangian framework. The model provides good estimates of the measured mass and distribution of sediment advected up the beach face. The results suggest that the correct modelling of turbulence generation prior to and during bore collapse and the advection of the turbulent kinetic energy into the lower swash is important in resolving the contribution of pre-suspended sediment to the net sediment transport in the swash zone. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Experimental and numerical analyses have been used to assess the validity and potentialities of the integral swash zone model by Brocchini and Peregrine (Proc. Coastal Dynamics ''95, ASCE 1 (1996) 221) which is extended to include seabed friction effects previously neglected. Applications of the model to experimental data show it represents a simple and useful tool for modelling swash zone flows. The model allows for computation of integral swash zone properties and shoreline motion from local variables defined at the seaward limit of the swash. For most properties, correlation between local and integral properties is very good (correlation coefficient about 0.80).A suitable parametric form of frictional forces in the swash zone is defined on the basis of both experimental data and analytical investigation. Numerical tests showed that the proposed parameterization models well integral frictional forces within the swash zone. The parametric friction force improves capabilities of the integral swash zone model of representing real swash motions. This is particularly evident when considering the momentum equation: the correlation coefficient between the rate of change of the onshore momentum in the swash zone and its forcings increases from about 0.85 to about 0.95 due to the inclusion of the seabed friction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Increasing pressures on coastal environments induced by sea level rise and coastal squeeze has meant that tracking the morphological evolution of sedimentary coasts from the last known survey, pre-empting storm impacts and forecasting potential beach recovery following extreme events is of substantial and increasing societal importance. Equilibrium models for forecasting coastal evolution have figured prominently in the literature in the past two decades and show a strong potential for fulfilling this societal need. In particular some very skilful shoreline evolution models have been proposed based on equilibrium concepts. These models are stable, simple and permit long-term (O(10) years) predictions of coastal change. However, equilibrium models are typically highly empirical and in many cases do not consider explicitly the impact of dynamic sea level, which is modulated by tides, surge and global sea level rise. Equilibrium-based models of shoreline evolution have shown particular promise, but these models generally do not consider the role of the sub- and supra-tidal morphology on coastal evolution (e.g. the importance of coastal dune systems). This contribution presents a new model for For ecasting C oastal E volution (ForCE), which addresses these issues. The model algorithm adopts a reduced complexity but fundamentally physics-based approach, whilst maintaining equilibrium principles. Unlike, most prior models, the sub- and supra-tidal areas are represented explicitly in the model, as are sea level variations. Sediment transport is equated directly with the disequilibrium in wave energy dissipation flux, leading to a sediment transport formulation that negates the normal intermediate step of computing surfzone currents, generally required in process models. Two components of sediment transport are considered: The first is forced by the turbulent kinetic energy associated with wave breaking and the second diffusive term, is related to a sea bed-slope disequilibrium. The first component perturbs the equilibrium profile and dominates in the surfzone, whilst that latter component plays an important role in beach recovery. Equations are developed for a depth-averaged, beach profile model, assuming longshore uniformity. These computational efficient and stable equations facilitate long forecasts (>decade) and easy comparisons with a field data at cross-shore transport dominated field sites. At the test field site, the model is capable of reproducing qualitative observations of nearshore sand-bar dynamics and quantitative comparisons with measured coastal state indicators including both the shoreline displacement (r = 0.90, N.M.S.E. = 0.145) and intertidal beach volume (r = 0.87). • Days to decades prediction of coastal evolution • Accurate predictions of storm erosion & post-storm beach recovery • Skilful long-term prediction of beach volume and shoreline change & bar-dynamics • Explicit consideration sub- and supra-tidal topography & water level • Stable, efficient, equilibrium model suitable for longterm probabilistic forecasts [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we addressed the potential impact of climate change on coastal erosion along the 28 beaches of the Basque Coast (150 km). A shoreline evolution model including cross-shore and alongshore sediment transport formulations, short- and long-term processes and hard structure treatment is developed. The historical analysis of the shoreline evolution is performed by forcing the model with waves and storm surges from reanalysis data, and with tides from in situ water level measurements. The model is calibrated and validated by using morphological information derived from the KostaSystem coastal video monitoring system. The analysis of the future impact of climate change on the sandy beaches is carried out using two sea level projections (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios) and their confidence intervals, combined with synthetic wave series that allowed a probabilistic fashion outcome. The results show that the shoreline mean erosion due to both short- and long-term processes is in the range of 10–45 m under the RCP 4.5 scenario and 14–66 m under RCP 8.5 by the year 2100, which indicate the great vulnerability of the beaches of the Basque Coast. Still, the response of the studied systems is highly variable, owing to the intrinsic characteristic of each site. This result points to the difficulty of taking general management measures and highlights the need for management strategies at the local level. • A shoreline evolution model suitable for urban beaches is set up along the sandy systems of the Basque Coast. • The model outcome is validated against the data obtained from a video monitoring system and handled in a probabilistic way. • A new climate change beach impact indicator (beach recovery potential loss) is analysed. • Shoreline mean erosion is in the range of 10–45 m under the RCP 4.5 scenario and 14–66 m under RCP 8.5 by the year 2100. • Results point to the need of local management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many places, sandy coastlines and their associated assets are at high risk of erosion and flooding, with this risk increasing under climate change and sea level rise. In this context, dynamic cobble berm revetments represent a potentially sustainable protection technique to armour sandy beaches, reduce wave runup and protect the hinterland against wave attack. However, the behaviour and performance of such structures is not well understood. The dynamic cobble berm revetment located in North Cove, WA, USA, was monitored over a spring tidal cycle in January 2019. A representative 60 m alongshore section was monitored over 10 days using 2D laser scanner (lidar) measurements, GPS ground elevation surveys, Radio Frequency Identification of individual cobbles and revetment thickness measurements. These data were used together to assess the dynamic behaviour and functionality of the revetment throughout the experiment. Over the course of the experiment, the surface elevation changed by up to ±0.5 m, and the revetment volume reduced by an average 0.67 m3/m. These changes were found to be caused by relatively large significant wave height and high water levels. The revetment demonstrated a dynamic stability and the capacity to quickly reshape under changing hydrodynamic conditions. The instrumented cobbles were transported along and cross-shore and accumulated at the toe of the revetment, but were never transported seaward of the toe. The revetment also managed to recover some of the lost volume under moderate wave conditions. The revetment behaviour was found to be influenced by variation in the cobble-sand matrix. The underlying sand dynamics – i.e. , accumulation or removal of sand within the cobbles – were found to govern the overall volume changes and were important to the overall stability of the revetment. Seven possible transport regimes were identified, and a model of the internal sand dynamics was developed. During the spring tidal cycle measured here, the revetment protected the sand scarp immediately landward and prevented flooding of the hinterland, while armouring the underlying sand. Over time, renourishment will likely be required due to longshore sediment transport, and preliminary guidelines for this and other aspects of design are suggested. • A field experiment was undertaken on a dynamic cobble berm revetment in North Cove, US. • The revetment showed a dynamic stability and a rapid adaptability to external forcing. • The water level at the toe of the structure appeared to be the primary driver of change. • A novel model highlighting the importance of internal sand dynamic was created. • Guidelines are proposed for design and nourishment of the structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response of nourished beaches to sea level rise is investigated experimentally with random waves in a laboratory wave flume (20 m × 1 m × 1 m), following on from a previous investigation of the response of non-nourished beaches (Atkinson et al., 2018). The nourishments are placed on beach profiles previously exposed to sufficient durations of waves to have approached a near-equilibrium state, i.e., with stable shoreline, bars and berms. Nourishment was placed in three different locations: on the berm, within the bar trough, and as a shoreline placement. In the latter case, and following Bruun rule concepts (Bruun, 1962), the volume of sediment placed was estimated a priori to lead to zero recession under the chosen water level rise. The nourished beaches were then exposed again to sufficient durations of waves to reach a near-equilibrium state at the raised water level. The shoreline recession and the mean recession of the profile following a rise in water level are compared for both the nourished and non-nourished beaches, and to theoretical estimates based on Bruun rule concepts and a previously developed Profile Translation Model (PTM). Quantitative agreement is found with the variants of the Bruun Rule that account for nourishment and with the PTM, and the predicted recession is within an order of ±30% of the observed recession. Overall, the PTM provides the best estimate of the recession. The mean recession of the profile is found to be in better agreement with the model predictions than the recession measured at the shoreline, because the latter is affected by changes in profile shape around the still water line. The efficacy of the nourishment was investigated from the reduction in the observed recession. The efficacy depends on how the recession is measured. For the mean recession, highest efficacy was observed when all the nourishment is added into the active profile. Conversely, for the shoreline recession, highest efficacy was observed with the nourishment placed on the upper beach because it prevents additional recession through wave overtopping. • Direct comparison of nourishment and non-nourishment experiments. • Nourishment reduces recession associated with sea level rise. • Nourishment placed further landward reduces chance of loss of sediment offshore. • The effective nourishment volume is important to consider when predicting recession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New large-scale experiments on the influence of storm sequencing on beach profile evolution are presented. The experiments comprised three sequences that commenced from the same initial beach profile. Each sequence consisted of two storms of different energy, with each storm followed by a recovery phase. A specific focus of the experiments was the influence of storm chronology as well as the influence of the recovery wave energy and duration on beach evolution. The breaker bar and the shoreline are studied as indicators for the beach response. Both evolve towards an equilibrium location for each wave condition where the breaker bar reaches its equilibrium much faster than the shoreline. Overall, no enhanced beach erosion due to storm sequencing is observed. Despite a similar cumulative wave power of the three sequences, the final beach configuration of each sequence seems to be determined by the last wave condition instead of previous storms. However, storm sequencing is important when the beach profile has not yet fully recovered before being disrupted by the subsequent storm. In this case, the second storm does not necessarily cause further erosion but can result in onshore sediment transport and hence, form part of the recovery. The bulk onshore sediment transport as well as the shoreline recovery rate vary depending on the wave condition and the profile disequilibrium and show a maximum value for a recovery condition with an intermediate wave energy. The very low energy condition that was performed for a long duration (24 hours) generated a near-stationary beach profile with typical features of a reflective beach. • New large-scale experiments on storm sequencing and beach response. • The beach evolves towards an equilibrium state under the performed storm sequences. • The rate of beach change varies depending on the antecedent beach morphology. • Largest bulk onshore sediment transport occurs for intermediate low energy conditions. • A very low energy condition of long duration (24 h) results in a reflective beach profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]