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This article details the pros, cons, challenges/pitfalls, and elements required for the successful conduct of multicenter randomized trials, with specific focus on trials related to pleural diseases. Several networks dedicated to the multicenter study of important pleural conditions have developed, yielding practice-changing studies in pleural disease. This review describes the importance of multicenter trials, major elements required for the conduct of such trials, and lessons learned from the ongoing development of the Interventional Pulmonary Outcomes Group, a consortium of interventional pulmonologists dedicated to advancing diagnostic and management strategies in pleural, pulmonary parenchymal, and airway disease by generating high-quality multicenter evidence.

Selected occupational populations are at the highest risk of lung cancer, because they smoke at increased rates and are concurrently exposed to workplace lung carcinogens. Low-dose computed tomography (CT)-based lung cancer screening has an enormous potential to reduce lung cancer mortality in these populations, as shown both in the lung cancer screening studies in the general population and in studies of workers at high risk of lung cancer. Pulmonologists can play a key role in identifying workers at high risk of lung cancer and ensuring that they are offered annual low-dose CT scans for early lung cancer detection.

In the diagnosis of lung cancer, pulmonologists have several tools at their disposal. From the tried and true convex probe endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS)-guided transbronchial needle aspiration to robotic bronchoscopy for peripheral lesions and new technology to unblind the biopsy tools, this article elucidates and expounds on the tools currently available and being developed for lung cancer diagnosis.

Therapeutic bronchoscopy for both endobronchial tumors and peripheral lung cancer is rapidly evolving. The expected increase in early stage lung cancer detection and significant improvement in near real-time imaging for diagnostic bronchoscopy has led to the development of bronchoscopy-delivered ablative technologies. Therapies targeting obstructing central airway tumors for palliation and as a method of local disease control, patient selection and patient-centered outcomes have been areas of ongoing research. This review focuses on patient selection when considering therapeutic bronchoscopy and new and developing technologies for endobronchial tumors and reviews the status of bronchoscopy-delivered ablative tools for peripheral lung cancers.

Since pulmonary pathologies, such as lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are some of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality around the world, pulmonologists are likely to encounter patients with unmet palliative care needs. This article focuses on the symptoms and complications encountered by patients with terminal pulmonary conditions, briefly describes the non-interventional palliative strategies, and then discusses more advanced therapies available in the realm of interventional pulmonology. Most of the literature discussed here is derived from patients with lung cancer and COPD.

Mediastinal lymph node station maps are intended to facilitate nodal staging in patients with non-small cell lung cancer. These maps have been revised over time and the International Association for Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC) map is the latest rendition. This article illustrates the imaging appearance of each of the IASLC map mediastinal lymph node stations, overviews some of the mediastinal lymph node sampling techniques, and discusses common pitfalls of the IASLC map. It also reviews mediastinal anatomic variants and pathologic features that may simulate lymphadenopathy.

Interventional pulmonologists are regularly asked to perform more complicated and advanced procedures, but reimbursement for the time, effort and skill involved in these procedures has not kept up with other procedural specialties. Further changes in funding and reimbursement are likely under the Affordable Care Act. Understanding and effectively using the current system of funding for interventional pulmonology practices are imperative as we adapt to changing medical needs, legislative mandates, and reimbursement policy. This article reviews the current landscape of insurance and reimbursement in health care and anticipates some changes that might be expected from implementation of the Affordable Care Act.

Radiography of the chest, head, neck, teeth, or extremity exposes the embryo or ovary to insignificant exposures of radiation except when radionuclides are utilized. In some instances, there is no exposure at all. Pulmonologists are fortunate with regard to the specific studies they request to provide clinical care because most of the diagnostic tests do not directly expose the uterus (embryo) or ovary. This article discusses radiation risks and their evaluation and pregnancy-related issues in diagnostic radiological studies.

Medical pleuroscopy (MP) offers a safe and minimally invasive tool for interventional pulmonologists. It allows diagnosis of unexplained effusion, while at the same time allowing drainage and pleurodesis. It can also help in the diagnosis of diffuse interstitial disease or associated peripheral lung abnormality in the presence of effusion. It can have a therapeutic role in pneumothorax and hyperhidrosis or chronic pancreatic pain. This article reviews the technical aspects and range of applications of MP.

The diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) requires an integrated multidisciplinary approach involving pulmonologists, radiologists, and pathologists. Early recognition of IPF and of its differentiation from other interstitial lung diseases is important for directing patient management and predicting prognosis. Clinical suspicion of IPF should be raised when patients, particularly those over 50 years of age, present with dyspnea that is gradual in onset and progressive. A confident diagnosis of IPF can be made based on clinical assessment, pulmonary function test results, and radiographic and bronchoscopic evaluation. However, the definitive diagnosis of IPF requires a surgical lung biopsy to confirm the histopathologic pattern of usual interstitial pneumonia.

The idiopathic interstitial pneumonias are a group of diffuse parenchymal lung diseases that manifest varying patterns of inflammation and fibrosis histopathologically. These disorders are classified most accurately by the combination of histopathology on lung biopsy with clinical and radiographic findings. A pattern-based approach to the histopathology of the lung biopsy, as examined at low magnification, immediately helps narrow the diagnostic possibilities. The technique can be applied by pulmonologists and pathologists in assembling a cogent differential diagnosis. More subtle histopathologic findings in the biopsy (eg, granulomas, necrosis, eosinophils) help narrow this differential. This pattern-based histopathologic technique fosters close interaction between pulmonologists and general pathologists during the evaluation of the patient who has interstitial lung disease and has undergone surgical biopsy.

Rigid bronchoscopy is a procedure that truly has stood the test of time—it now has been performed in three centuries. Rigid bronchoscopy was introduced more than 100 years ago and for many years was performed primarily by surgeons for therapeutic interventions such as foreign body removal and dilation of stenoses. The introduction of the flexible bronchoscope in the mid-1960s led to major changes in the field of bronchoscopy; internists, primarily pulmonologists, became interested in and developed expertise in flexible bronchoscopy, resulting in a dramatic decrease in the number of rigid bronchoscopies performed. Since the mid-1980s, there has been a renewed interest in rigid bronchoscopy, in part because of the emerging lung cancer epidemic, the development of new endobronchial therapies, and the evolution of the new specialty of interventional pulmonology. Today, the rigid bronchoscope serves an important conduit to the central airways for those who manage patients with difficult benign and malignant airway disorders. A number of therapies such as laser photoresection, endobronchial stents, balloon dilation, electrocautery, argon beam coagulation, and cryotherapy can be performed safely and effectively with the rigid bronchoscope. For many decades, rigid bronchoscopy was viewed as a somewhat crude and uncomfortable procedure for the patient. Now, however, it is considered a safe and easily tolerated procedure because of improvements in anesthesia and ventilation techniques. Despite the incredible explosion in medical technology in the latter half of the twentieth century, there have been only minor structural changes to the original rigid bronchoscope. In fact, the rigid bronchoscopes used today do not differ significantly to those used in the earlier part of the twentieth century. It is not clear what the twenty-first century holds for rigid bronchoscopy, but there is little doubt that the rigid instrumentation and procedure are here to stay.

Despite its proven usefulness, TBNA is not widely used. An American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) survey showed that only 11.8% of pulmonologists use TBNA. Most pulmonologists in the 1980s were not formally trained in TBNA. This lack of training has unfortunately translated to minimal emphasis on TBNA in current training programs in a large number of institutions. Technical problems with the procedure (faulty site selection, incomplete needle penetration, catheter kinking that prevents adequate suction, etc.), the confusing array of needles, low diagnostic yields, unproven concerns regarding the safety of the procedure, inadequate cytopathology support, and bronchoscopic damage have all perpetuated the image of limited usefulness for this procedure. Limitations to the practice of TBNA are: Lack of training during fellowship Technical inadequacies Lack of cytopathologists trained in TBNA interpretation Fear of bronchoscope damage Safety issues Failure to reproduce published successes Reservations regarding usefulness of TBNA results Hands-on experience with TBNA, developing familiarity and expertise with only a few needles, and paying careful attention to anatomy, procedure techniques, and specimen acquisition may all help to increase yield. The following lists how better results can be obtained with TBNA: Preprocedure Review TBNA instruction tapes Attend hands-on courses Practice with lung models Review patient's CAT scans Familiarize with one-two cytology and histology needle Obtain a trained assistant Procedural Identify target site Needle to airway angle at least greater than 45 degrees Insert entire length of the needle Use scope channel to support the catheter Release suction before withdrawing needle (for staging) Specimen acquisition Avoid delay in preparing slides Adequate sampling (at least two) Use smear method for cytology specimen Analyze all samples flush solutions cell block Postprocedure Find an experienced cytopathologist Review your procedure (by watching video) Review pathology slides Acquisition of skills with cytology needles should precede the use of the histology needle. Increasing education and experience can also increase diagnostic yields. Transbronchial needle aspiration has been proven to be accurate in staging lung cancers, identifying inoperable carcinomas, and diagnosing a variety of lung diseases. Few complications have been encountered and the technique is less invasive and less costly than surgical procedures. Drawing on evidence from published literature, we suggest the following guidelines for TBNA: All patients presenting with mediastinal or hilar adenopathy or both, should have 22-ga and/or 19-ga TBNA as the initial procedure. These procedures would help diagnose malignant and nonmalignant diseases, and stage lung cancers. All patients with evidence of submucosal and peribronchial disease should have 22-ga needle cytology sampling. In patients with visible endobronchial disease, 22-ga TBNA should be optional. In the presence of a necrotic or a hemorrhagic tumor, or in a patient with a bleeding diathesis, TBNA would be helpful. In all patients with Type III and IV peripheral nodules, TBNA should be the initial diagnostic procedure. There remains no doubt about the diagnostic usefulness of TBNA. Guidelines must be developed to ensure that pulmonary fellows are adequately trained in this procedure. Regional workshops with hands-on experience targeted to practicing pulmonologists organized by the ACCP would help popularize the procedure. Initial low yields should not discourage pulmonologists from using the procedure. Collaboration between thoracic surgeons, oncologists, and pulmonary physicians is essential to set up TBNA programs within institutions. With time, as more and more pulmonologists attain expertise in TBNA, the full potential of this nonsurgical, cost-effective, and safe procedure will be realized.

Despite the multitude of potential complications that may be encountered during the early post-transplant period, the majority of transplant recipients experience a smooth transition from postoperative intensive care, to step-down unit, to the regular medical floor, and, ultimately, to their home within 10 to 14 days without any significant unexpected events. The likelihood of serious complications can be greatly reduced through careful recipient selection, impeccable donor management, and the cooperative efforts of surgeons, pulmonologists, nurse specialists, and the numerous experienced consultants required for a successful transplant program. Although many unique facets contribute to the complexity of lung transplant patient care, attention to the details of high-quality general postsurgical care will yield excellent results.

Tracheostomy is a commonly performed intervention with several benefits in the treatment of patients with chronic respiratory failure. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy techniques have allowed bedside tracheostomy placement in the modern intensive care unit. Percutaneous dilational tracheostomy can be safely performed by interventional pulmonologists, medical intensive care physicians, and surgical specialists. When performed with the assistance of adjuncts, such as flexible bronchoscopy, the percutaneous dilational method has a favorable complication rate, efficiency, and cost profile compared with surgical tracheostomy.

Patients with metabolic, immunologic, viral, and other types of hepatic disorders can have a spectrum of complicating pulmonary abnormalities. The natural history of these associations is poorly understood. Significant reversibility in hepatic and pulmonary dysfunction, however, has been well documented in the era of organ transplantation. The continued relationship among pulmonologists, hepatologists, and transplant surgeons hopefully will provide enlightening data on these interesting clinical associations, their natural histories, and their response to evolving therapeutic approaches.

The interstitial lung diseases (ILDs), or diffuse parenchymal lung diseases, are a heterogeneous collection of more than 100 different pulmonary disorders that affect the tissue and spaces surrounding the alveoli. Patients affected by ILD usually present with shortness of breath or cough; for many, there is evidence of pulmonary restriction, decreased diffusion capacity, and radiographic appearance of alveolar and/or reticulonodular infiltrates. This article reviews the inherited ILDs, with a focus on the diseases that may be seen by pulmonologists caring for adult patients. The authors conclude by briefly discussing the utility of genetic testing in this population.

Diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for lung cancer have improved with advancing technology and the acquisition of the necessary skills by bronchoscopists to fully use these advanced techniques. The diagnostic yield for lung cancer has significantly increased with the advent of technologies such as endobronchial ultrasound, navigational systems, and improved imaging modalities. Similarly, the therapeutic benefit of bronchoscopy in advanced lung cancer has begun to be understood for its impact on quality and quantity of life. This article highlights the pulmonologists' diagnostic advances and therapeutic options, with an emphasis on outcomes.

Over the past century, bronchoscopy has become an essential tool for pulmonologists and thoracic surgeons, who for many years have employed bronchoscopy with such therapeutic modalities as laser therapy, electrocautery, cryotherapy, and stent placement. Over the past decade, advanced imaging techniques, such as autofluoresence bronchoscopy, electromagnetic navigation, narrow-band imaging, confocal fluorescence microendoscopy, and endobronchial ultrasound, have greatly expanded the diagnostic utility of bronchoscopy. This article reviews the technological advances in the field of diagnostic bronchoscopy.

Many principles that originate in the operating room and in fluid mechanics modeling are relevant to endotracheal intubation in the pulmonary and critical care setting. These factors should be appreciated by pulmonologists and intensivists, as they may contribute to improved safety during the process of airway access. The usual reflex responses to stimulation of oropharyngeal and upper airway receptors include glottic closure, hypertension, tachycardia, and reflex bronchoconstriction. These reflexes can be modified by technical or pharmacologic reduction of sensory receptor stimulation or by parenteral agents, which diminish efferent responses, including anesthetics, vasoactive drugs, and adrenergic blockers. Topical anesthesia and parenteral sedatives may be the preferred agents when overall risk and benefit are considered. Intubation also has consequences related to a reduction in airway caliber, to changes in respiratory mechanics, and to the creation of turbulent airflow in the endotracheal tube.

Many pathologists and pulmonologists have trained and practiced in an era during which therapeutic options for patients have increased manyfold with regard to pharmacologic agents. Toxicity to the lung may be recognized as data accumulate in the form of case reports and clinical reviews to document the clinical and pathologic manifestations. For the histopathologist, paradoxically the more we learn the more difficult problems of interpretation become. Drug reactions previously described extensively at the autopsy now can be relatively easily interpreted in living patients with tissue obtained by open lung biopsy. This latter procedure is becoming less common with diffuse infiltrative lung disease in favor of the transbronchial biopsy in which sampling error abounds. There may be no disease or minimal change. The pathologic lesions may be duly noted and described, but then defy interpretation. An accurate differential diagnosis following biopsy may not solve the clinical problems for which a tissue diagnosis was sought. A specific diagnosis may be made that does not fit the clinical picture, or the real "answer" may be revealed distressingly later in the clinical-course or, more distressingly, at autopsy. The prudent histopathologist deals with such limitation by objectively stating the observable facets of tissue injury and synthesizing an interpretation. Notwithstanding the burgeoning literature on mechanisms of injury of toxic substances, the "state of the art" in 1990 for interpretation of pulmonary drug reactions still lies with the exacting judgment of experienced clinical physicians. Proper evaluation can result in exclusion of important mimickers of interstitial lung disease, usually infection and neoplasia; accurate categorization of tissue injury and comparison with known injurious responses to the drug in question may lead to a relatively specific diagnosis of drug-induced injury. Most drug reactions in the lung are classified as an interstitial pneumonia. This article illustrates and describes several interstitial reactions to injury that have few histologic features in common. However, because the lung can only react to injury in a limited number of ways, lesions that were thought at one time to be a specific clinicopathologic entity, for example, DIP, now evoke an ever-expanding differential diagnosis. In applying diagnostic criteria emphasis must be placed on the areas of overlap among tissue reactions as well. Specific agents may cause changes that are described as common for that agent, but a given patient may react with a variation or in a distinctly uncommon manner. There is enormous potential in this field for the laboratory investigation of drug injury.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Millions of people worldwide engage in leisure or occupational activities in extreme environments. These environments entail health risks even for normal subjects. The presence of lung disease, or other conditions, further predisposes to illness or injury. Patients who have lung conditions should, but often do not, consult with their pulmonary clinicians before traveling. Normal subjects, including elderly or deconditioned adults, may be referred to pulmonologists for evaluation of risk prior to exposure. Other patients may present for consultations after complications occur. Pulmonary function testing before or after exposure can assist physicians counseling patients about the likelihood of complications.

A large and diverse group of pathologic conditions manifests clinically and radiologically as diffuse parenchymal lung disease. Diffuse interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) encompass mainly inflammatory processes that involve the structural elements of this organ. Some ILDs are caused by infections, but most are the result of immunologic, environmental, or toxic mechanisms. Currently, less morbid sampling techniques have increased dramatically the probability that pulmonologists will be faced with establishing a specific and clinically relevant diagnosis using surgical lung biopsy material. Most of the concepts presented in this article have been established using this type of specimen. In the early years of surgical lung biopsy, a small number of diffuse inflammatory conditions came to light that exclusively involved the lungs and did not seem to be caused by infection, toxin, sarcoidosis, pneumoconiosis, or neoplasm. In this article, these idiopathic disorders are discussed in the context of their dominant pathologic findings rather than presented as a separate group of entities.