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Nitrogenous flame retardants (NFRs) have aroused worldwide public concern as their nephrotoxic effect. However, knowledge regarding the pathogenesis mechanism of their exposure to induce kidney injury remains largely unknown. In this study, eight NFRs, four oxidative stress biomarkers (OSBs), and one kidney injury biomarker, namely neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), were measured in urine specimens collected from residents living around e-waste disassembly and reference areas, representing two exposure scenarios. Significant higher concentrations of Σ

The distribution of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) including ∑ 8 PBDEs, DBDPE, BTBPE, EH-TBB, BEH-TEBP and PBEB in road dust (RD) collected in Xinxiang, China was characterized. Analysis of RD samples indicated that the BFR abundance declined as traffic density decreased, with total mean levels of 292, 184, 163, 104 and 70 ng g −1 dust at sites from traffic intersections, main roads, collector streets, bypasses and parks, respectively. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that the majority of BFRs may be emitted from the interior of vehicles via their ventilation systems. Of the 13 analyzed substances, BDE-209 and BEH-TEBP were the most abundant components in RD from Xinxiang. Similar amounts of ∑BDEs excluding BDE-209 were found at different types of sampling sites, and thus, atmospheric deposition is also a probable source of BFRs in RD which can be subject to air transportation. The main PBDE sources were traced to commercial products including DE-71, Bromkal 79-8DE, Saytex 201E and Bromkal 82 DE mixtures. Our results confirm that the use of deca-BDE commercial mixture is a major source of PBDE contamination in RD. Risk assessment indicated the concentrations of BFRs in RD in this study do not constitute a non-cancer or cancer risk to humans through ingestion. Annual emission fluxes of the commonly detected BFRs via RD in China were estimated to be up to 4980 kg year −1 .