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The Western Carpathians region in southern Poland is characterized by high erosion risk due to steep slopes, flysch formation and intense precipitation with frequent storm events. The G2 model, based on the principles of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), was used to investigate soil erosion assessment, except that the yearly rainfall erosivity factor was substituted for by the monthly one. The plant cover factor was determined based on the CORINE land cover 2012 database and field observations of vegetation stages. Slope intercept was estimated by applying a Sobel filter. Terrain properties were calculated from a 5 m DEM of the area. Modeling investigations were carried out in the agricultural basin of the mountain catchment (1.47 km 2 ) in the years 2011–2014. Rainfall data were collected from weather stations, and soil properties were measured in 43 locations. The G2 model estimated total annual soil loss as between 3.37 Mg ha −1 (2012) and 31.05 Mg ha −1 (2014). The erosive events that contributed most to yearly erosion occurred in May (2014: 80.40% of yearly total) and June (2013: 57.08%). Redundancy analysis based on land-use types provided factors affecting soil erosion by water. In conclusion, the G2 model was useful in erosion estimation in a steep-sloped agricultural basin with a variable hydrological regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varved lake sediments provide an invaluable archive of natural and human-induced environmental changes. We present results of sedimentological, geochemical and pollen analyses of recent sediments from Lake Jaczno (northeastern Poland). The sediment record was dated using varve chronology validated with 137 Cs fallout peaks. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis were used to identify four major phases of lake development during the last 200 years. These results were compared with maps and archival data. At the beginning of the studied period (1839–1853), the lake catchment was already partly deforested and used for agriculture, which resulted in intensive soil erosion and high input of minerogenic matter. Next, a short period (1854–1864) characterized by fire events is recorded by microcharcoal in the sediments. The following phase (1865–1971) shows major changes in the catchment area including further deforestation and shortening of the major inflow feeding the lake. This caused a major change from allochthonous (minerogenic) to autochthonous (biogenic) sedimentation, expressed by the transition from clastic-organic to biogenic varves. The most recent phase (1972–2013) is characterized by natural afforestation, reduction of allochthonous inputs and increase in autochthonous deposition. Our study shows how intensification of agriculture and related land use changes in small catchments influences sedimentation processes and the formation of varves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to calculate and evaluate the changes in spatial distribution of soil erosion rates related to land use/cover changes and climate changes in the Sudetes Mts. within the last 150 years. Various methods were used, including GIS analysis of historical and contemporary land use/cover and climate data, spatial analysis of soil erosion modeling using RUSLE. Changes in spatial distribution of precipitation sums were estimated based on spatial deterministic-stochastic models (regression-kriging) applied to the measurement data from the entire Sudetes region in both analyzed periods. There was a pronounced increase in the area of forests and grasslands at the expenses of arable grounds due to depopulation and consequent land abandonment. These changes started already in the 1880s but they were intensified after World War II. On average soil erosion in the study area decreased by 76.2% (from 4.03 t ha − 1 y − 1 in the 19th century to present 0.96 t ha − 1 y − 1 ). However, the changes in erosion are highly diverse locally in the studied region with the maximum decrease of 8–16 t ha − 1 y − 1 on steep and higher slopes, which were transformed from arable grounds to forests and grasslands. While both land use and climate changes took place in the study area, changes in land use/cover have a much larger impact on calculated soil erosion rate than climate change. The abandonment of land and the development of spontaneous succession of vegetation limited soil erosion in a very effective way. The values obtained by RUSLE modeling were compared with other values of soil erosion from various field measurements in the Sudetes Mountains in order to evaluate the model. The measurements were based on the experimental plots and sediments stored within the agricultural terraces and in the water reservoirs of various sizes. While the specific sites show large differences in denudation rates, the mean contemporary erosion calculated from our model (0.06 mm y − 1 ) corresponds with the average rate of denudation, which was calculated for the entire Sudetes: 0.05–0.01 mm y − 1 (Jahn 1968). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The socio-economic effect of the occurrence of specific forms of relief, is a significant research problem in applied geomorphology. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of permanent gullies on land cover and agriculture within the loess areas of Eastern (E.) Poland. We analyzed the relationships between an area consisting of gullies and selected environmental and socio-economic indices. We used the following statistical methods: Pearson's linear correlation, ANOVA, PCA and cluster analysis. It was found that districts with a similar gully density are characterized by the occurrence of a similar set of economic characteristics found within agriculture (cluster analysis). The most distinct impact of the occurrence of gullies on the potential of agriculture was observed when gullies covered more than 2% of the district. We identified the relationships between the area covered by gullies and present-day forest cover (Pearson correlation index 0.5), changes in the forest cover in the 20th century (0.7), the area of landscape parks and reserves (0.8) and the share of big farms (− 0.5). Weak negative correlations occurred between the gully area and the economic aspects of agriculture (indices from − 0.2 to − 0.4). The correlations between the area of gullies, area of forests and share of farms larger than 20 ha were confirmed by ANOVA. The PCA method showed a negative correlation between the area of gullies, the share of arable lands and the share of farms with good prospects. A positive correlation was found in the case of protected areas, steep slopes and forests. In the future, gullies may turn out to be a challenge to the development of efficient agriculture; they are an obstacle to land consolidation and farm enlargement. Areas characterized by a high density of gullies require special spatial management to reduce negative economic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Land cover is one of the most changeable environment components in time and space. The type, intensity and spatial distribution of land use forms result directly from the actual and former character of agriculture. In this study, an attempt was made to assess the impact of loess relief on the spatial diversity of land use patch features. The research was carried out within three test areas covering a total of about 100km2. The test areas are located within the loess areas of SE Poland. Spatial analyses were carried out using GIS software. Eight landscape metrics were used; altogether 170 averaged parameters (based on almost 13,000 patches) were calculated. In general, the patterns were similar in all three test areas, bigger slopes favour occurrence of larger land use mosaic. Observed land use diversity is as a form of adaptation of agriculture to the existing geomorphological conditions (soil erosion threat). The implementation of land consolidation programmes is very low in loess areas, which results besides social and economic aspects from the occurrence of a diverse mosaic of fields and varied topography. That is why loess areas require special land consolidation programmes taking into account specific geomorphological conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Key catchments of the Roztocze loess area in south-east Poland have a great potential of revealing the history of long-term soil erosion and changes in land use. The knowledge of how and when soil erosion took place in the past helps one understand the impact of land use changes on the landscapes [Bork, H.-R., 1989. Soil erosion during the past Millennium in Central Europe and its significance within the geomorphodynamics of the Holocene. Catena 15, 121–131]. The Jedliczny Dol gully system near the town Zwierzyniec in south-east Poland was investigated by using detailed field stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating of charcoal and wood. In connection with new settlements which were established between the 14th and 16th centuries, arable land was cultivated and forests were used much more intensively. As a consequence, the loess soils were strongly eroded during heavy rainfalls. Up to 4 m of colluvial sediments were deposited in the gully system during the 15th and/or 16th centuries. The thickness of the colluvial sediments indicate severe erosion which might be related to excessive timber exploitation for the local glass and iron production. With the foundation of the so-called Ordinariat Zamoyski at the end of the 16th century, some parts of the area were presumably reforested. High pressure on the land at the beginning of the 19th century enabled a second main phase of gulling before 1900. Since 1890 at the latest, almost the whole catchment is used as a forest, however, concentrated runoff on compacted forest roads can still be high after heavy rainfalls. In loess areas soil erosion caused by intensive land use, triggered by heavy rainfalls, can change the landscape drastically. These changes will continue to influence how catchments react, even if land use gets less intensive again. This knowledge should be considered regarding future, sustainable land use and recent changes in land use in the south-eastern Polish loess regions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The influence of different land use history on the chemistry, mineralogy, and micromorphology of bog iron ores was studied in the vicinity of Warsaw, Poland. At three Holocene terraces of the Vistula River, eight profiles were chosen, which represent three different types of bog iron ore: (i) continuous hard layers (meadow, fallow at Wilanow), (ii) horizons with small ore fragments (arable land at Northern Praga), and (iii) soft bog iron ore (exploitation area at Brwinow). Chemical analyses of all bog iron horizons show a high content of Fed (up to 51%) with a Feo/Fed ratio from 0.19 to 0.58, indicating a mixture of crystalline iron and amorphous iron compounds. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses confirm the presence of ferrihydrite and goethite. The micromorphology of the bog ore at Wilanow shows a porous (vugh and channel) microstructure. The groundmass consists mainly of fine iron hydroxides. Compound coatings of radial distributed goethite needles and isotropic (“amorphous”) iron hydroxides line the pores. In many cases, several coatings of isotropic iron hydroxides, differing in colour intensity, fill the pores. Ploughing and draining at Northern Praga changed the continuous bog iron ore into small fragments embedded into an aggregate structure. It comprises of amorphous as well as crystalline iron compounds (large number of coatings of radial fibrous goethite in pores and channels). In some cases, a single pore can contain several generations of crystalline goethite. The higher crystallinity of the iron oxides fits very well to the lower Feo/Fed ratios compared to Wilanow. The differences can be attributed to the drainage, subsequent lower groundwater level, and better aeration, respectively, at Northern Praga. No hard bog iron ore is present at Brwinow because of exploitation, sporadically fragments of hard bog ore may be encountered in the topsoil. However, soft bog ore is still developing in subsoils. It shows a vughs microstructure. Besides goethite, manganese impregnations on the crystalline forms of goethite, and isotropic iron compounds, its groundmass also contains vivianite as well as siderite. The latter can be attributed to a more reductive environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]