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Abstract Plateau dunes are unique landforms which formed as erosion relicts in blow-out areas in Late Pleistocene sandy deposits. They are negative forms in contrast to normal dunes where sand is accumulated (positive form). Plateau dunes are located in the European Aeolian Sand Belt in the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark and they are flat-topped features with a bog in the central part often covered by a thin aeolian sand layer. A conceptual model of formation and further development of plateau dunes in time are presented in detail, using 14C dates of buried peat layers and OSL dates of sandy sediments. Special focus is on the influence of climate factors, pedology, and human activity on the formation of plateau dunes. Highlights • Conceptual model of plateau dune formation • Pedology as a landforming factor • OSL dating of aeolian deposits • Climate impact on blanket peat formation • Human destruction of pre-existing vegetation cover [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In alpine regions, global climate change will likely alter rain and snowfall patterns and increase the frequency of extreme meteorological events such as floods. These events, combined with land use changes, may pose an immediate hazard to the life and properties of downslope inhabitants and to water resource structures downstream. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of land use changes (e.g., areas covered by grassland, green alder, and dwarf shrubs) on peak discharge for different return periods and different scenarios (past, current, and future) in the Urseren Valley in the Central Swiss Alps. In addition to the entire Urseren Valley, we also considered four microcatchments of various sizes and land covers within the valley. We used the ZEMOKOST model, which considers the impact of a wide range of vegetation and channel characteristics on surface hydrology. Results at the catchment scale show an increase in peak discharge for all return periods from 2 to 300 years. In two microcatchments, simulation results indicate that expected changes in the vegetation cover will drastically decrease peak discharge in the future for all return periods, by up to 41% (for a 100-year return period). At the catchment scale, although the surface area covered by green alder increases by 38% and the area covered by dwarf shrubs decreases by 26% from the current to the future scenario, the peak discharge increases for all return periods except for the 2- and 5-year return periods. It appears that the drastic decrease of grassland area from the current to future (− 52%) scenario is responsible for the slight increase in peak discharge (about 4% for a 100-year period). In addition, surface area covered by dwarf shrub not only decreases from the current to future scenario, but also clusters into more continuous zones damping lateral flow and resulting in such moderate increase. The consistency between observed and simulated peak discharge for a 100-year return period attests the reliability of our modelling outcomes. Careful land use planning taking into account the results of our analysis can help to better manage land and water resources in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, temperate steppe have become seriously degraded, and rest grazing or moderate grazing approaches have been widely adopted since 1998 to restore degraded grasslands in northern China. The importance of choosing an appropriate grazing management regime for optimizing carbon sequestration in light of climate change or promoting other multiple ecological benefits of grassland ecosystems to humankind have long been recognized. In particular, the various uncertainties in plant and soil properties affected by grazing management require clarification. In this study, we selected fifteen blocks within three kinds of grazing management practices, including free grazing, warm-season grazing, and rest grazing, to test the responses of plant and soil properties to grazing management. The results showed that the species richness, the Shannon-Wiener index, and the proportion of forb functional group were higher for the warm-season grazing sites than for the free grazing sites. Soil bulk density, pH, the Pielou evenness index and the proportion of legume functional groups showed no difference among the three kinds of grazing managements. However, aboveground biomass, root biomass, canopy cover, and height of the vegetation community were larger in the rest grazing sites than in the free grazing sites. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen contents decreased as management intensity increased, with the lowest and highest values occurring in the free grazing and rest grazing sites, respectively. Furthermore, soil organic carbon and total nitrogen contents were correlated positively with root biomass. Rest grazing was a suitable management strategy for carbon and nitrogen sequestrations, while moderate grazing was a suitable management strategy for diversity conservation in the temperate steppe, in northern China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Land use and land cover classes homogenize within-class differences in vegetation density, type and other characteristics that influence surface erosion. • When these classes are used to estimate current and projected future RUSLE C-factor for native vegetation, this introduces significant error. • Remote sensing methods can be used to assess intra-class variation in C-factor, improving the soil loss estimate. • A strong, predictive relationship exists between remotely-sensed C-factor values and climate. • Current and projected changes in climate can be used to directly estimate C-factor, improving the estimate of current and future soil loss rates. This new method provides a low-cost, efficient and reliable estimate of future C. Understanding how reservoir sedimentation rates may evolve due to climate change is essential for projecting future changes in reservoir water storage capacity. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is commonly used to assess regional soil loss rates because of its suitability for working with the coarse temporal and spatial scale of climate model outputs. Application of the RUSLE for projecting future erosion rates is constrained by the relatively limited number of classes used in projected changes of native vegetation: this typically reduces a wide range of variation in RUSLE cover (C) factors to a single value per class, and these classes may be insensitive to changes in species composition and canopy density with time and space. This paper develops a low-cost, efficient, and objective approach to projecting future C values directly based on widely available Landsat data, downscaled climate model data, and a limited number of terrain variables. Observed C is estimated from Landsat-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Modified Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI) values using standard methods. A linear relationship is established between the observed C values and average annual antecedent temperature, average annual antecedent precipitation, latitude, and percent sand (adjusted R2 = 0.75604, 0.7543, and RMSE = 0.09448, 0.07043, respectively). A proof of principal study demonstrates that, unlike when land cover classes are used to estimates C, a RUSLE model driven by the regression-based C provides a correct order-of-magnitude estimate of observed long-term erosion and sediment yield rates (e.g., an estimate of 2.9–3.2 t ha−1 y-1 is obtained where observed rates range from 1.2 to 3.9 t ha−1 y-1 for the same time period, and up to 8 t ha−1 y-1 historically, while standard formulations of RUSLE yield 16.1 and 0.3 t ha−1 y-1). Using climate model data to estimate both precipitation intensity (R factor) and C in the RUSLE model results in basin wide projected end 21st century soil erosion rates for relative concentration pathway 8.5 of 5.5–7.5 t ha−1 y-1, consistent with expectations for accelerated soil loss in the study area as climate change reduces soil moisture while increasing precipitation intensity. The same model driven by land cover class estimates of C produces soil loss rates an order of magnitude smaller (0.3–0.4 t ha−1 y-1), consistent with a much more heavily vegetated landscape than could be supported under the increasingly arid projected climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A challenge in land use is related to use of peatlands for bioenergy production. • We created storylines for land use of peat fields together with climate change. • We modelled their influence on water quality by process-based models. • Conversion to arable land may pose a risk to the ecological status of the river. • Sustainable development in energy production leads to the best water quality. In Northern Finland, the most significant land use challenges are related to bioenergy production from peat extraction and forest biomass. Increasing societal demand for bioenergy may increase production rates. However, environmental impacts of peat extraction are of increasing concern, which has led to a decline in production, thereby freeing up these areas for other uses. Using storylines for different societal futures and process-based models (PERSiST and INCA), we simulated the effect of simultaneous land use change and climate change on water quality (phosphorus, nitrogen and suspended sediments concentration). Conversion of peat extraction areas to arable land, together with climate change, may pose a risk for deterioration of ecological status. On the other hand, continuous forestry may have positive impacts on water quality. Suspended sediment concentrations in the river do not exceed water quality requirements for salmonids, but nitrogen concentrations may exceed threshold values especially during high flows. A storyline emphasizing sustainable development in energy production led to the best outcome in terms of water protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduced streamflow is a major concern in the Haihe river basin, which supplies water for agriculture, industry and the growing population along the river. The upper Sang-kan (USK) river basin is the headwater of the Haihe river. To understand the drivers of streamflow change in this basin, effects of land use change and climate variability on temporal flow variability were studied using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The calibration and validation results of the Scenario 0 ( S 0) model (with land use of 1986 and climate derived from 1979 to 1990) indicated that SWAT simulated monthly streamflow well. This was indicated by the Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency ( NS ) and the Coefficient of Correlation ( r 2 ) for monthly flow, which were 0.89 and 0.91 for the calibration period (1981–1985) and 0.79 and 0.82 for the validation period (1986–1990), respectively. After calibration and validation of the SWAT model ( S 0), three different scenarios were simulated and compared in order to study the effects: Scenario 1 (land use of 2000 and climate during the 1979–1990 period, abbreviated as S 1), Scenario 2 (land use of 2012 and climate during the 1979–1990 period, abbreviated as S 2), and Scenario 3 (land use of 2012 and climate during the 2001–2012 period, abbreviated as S 3). By comparing the simulated hydrological results of S 0 vs. S 1 and S 2, and S 2 vs. S 3, and the annual changes in water use, it can be concluded that the recent perennial drought in the USK river has mainly been caused by human activities; warmer temperatures and less rainfall resulted in streamflow declining by 39.1%, while land use changes and the accompanied water use change for irrigation resulted in surface runoff increasing by 37.6% and streamflow increase between 2.2% and 3.9%, during the period of 1986–2012; increasing ground water and surface water usage for urbanization, industrialization, and reservoir constructions can be attributed from 63.1% to 64.8% of the perennial drought in USK river in recent years. The hydrological simulations provided a better understanding of streamflow changes in the USK basin. The study results can be helpful to maintain ecosystem services and sustainable water use in this region and in the Haihe River basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil is the largest terrestrial organic carbon pool and can act as a source or sink for atmospheric CO 2 . Although reliable soil carbon (SOC) stock measurements of major ecosystems are essential for predicting the influence of advancing climate change, comprehensive data on SOC stocks is still scarce for most ecosystems in subtropical areas. In this study, SOC and N stocks of different land use systems were investigated along a climatic gradient in Northwest Ethiopia. The land use systems ranged from dry subtropical Afromontane forest, as the baseline, to cropland as the most degraded system. In addition, we investigated the changes of SOC stocks after interventions to recover vegetation cover; these were eucalyptus plantations and an exclosure to prevent grazing. Total SOC varied between land use systems and ranged from 3.1 kg C m − 2 in croplands to 23.9 kg C m − 2 in natural forest, and average N stock ranged from 0.4 kg N m − 2 in croplands to 2.1 kg N m − 2 in natural forest. In forests, there were a clear vertical gradient in SOC and N stock down the soil profile, and 60% of the total SOC and N stocks were found in the upper 10 cm soil depth. Using the Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios and the vertical distribution of the C/N ratio of the soil, the losses of SOC were shown to be due to loss of the of the upper soil layer. Afforestation of degraded croplands and grazing lands with eucalyptus increased SOC stocks to nearly 70% of the natural forest levels within 30 years. Exclosure, which removed grazing pressure and allowed regeneration of native vegetation, increased SOC in the top soil only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varved lake sediments provide an invaluable archive of natural and human-induced environmental changes. We present results of sedimentological, geochemical and pollen analyses of recent sediments from Lake Jaczno (northeastern Poland). The sediment record was dated using varve chronology validated with 137 Cs fallout peaks. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis were used to identify four major phases of lake development during the last 200 years. These results were compared with maps and archival data. At the beginning of the studied period (1839–1853), the lake catchment was already partly deforested and used for agriculture, which resulted in intensive soil erosion and high input of minerogenic matter. Next, a short period (1854–1864) characterized by fire events is recorded by microcharcoal in the sediments. The following phase (1865–1971) shows major changes in the catchment area including further deforestation and shortening of the major inflow feeding the lake. This caused a major change from allochthonous (minerogenic) to autochthonous (biogenic) sedimentation, expressed by the transition from clastic-organic to biogenic varves. The most recent phase (1972–2013) is characterized by natural afforestation, reduction of allochthonous inputs and increase in autochthonous deposition. Our study shows how intensification of agriculture and related land use changes in small catchments influences sedimentation processes and the formation of varves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overall impact of individual environmental factors on the content of soil organic carbon (SOC) is well known, but the simultaneous impacts of natural and anthropogenic factors on the amount and diversity of SOC pools in mountain areas are still insufficiently recognized. This study has three objectives: (1) to determine SOC pools in the mountain toposequence in relation to the climate-elevation gradient and vertical vegetation zonality, largely as a result of interference caused by human activity; (2) to predict the fluctuations of SOC pools in mountain soils affected by changes in land use/forest management and expected climate warming; and (3) to verify whether the humus form is a predictor of SOC pools in mountain soil. A spatial, climate-/altitude-dependent trend of SOC pools is clearly marked on the northern slopes of the Karkonosze Mountains, SW Poland. These SOC pools gradually increase up to the altitude of ca. 1000 m a.s.l. and then decrease in the uppermost forest and subalpine zones. The SOC pools are also strongly related to land use/vegetation (arable soils < grasslands = European beech stands < Norway spruce stands) and soil type (Luvisols < Cambisols < Podzols). Humus forms reflect the differences in SOC pools (mull < moder < mor), but the recent European classification does not clearly allocate semiterrestrial sub-types among mor and moder humus forms. Expected climate warming and present changes in land use and forest management lead to similar changes in SOC pools. However, replacing spruce monocultures with mixed or broadleaf stands reduces the SOC pools in the lower forest zones, while the timberline rise and the succession of Norway spruce on grasslands increases SOC pools in the upper forest and subalpine zones. Thus, the balance of SOC pools caused by changes in land use and climate warming will be specific in particular mountain areas, depending on their maximum altitude and existing vegetation zones, the degree of anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems, and the resilience of ecosystems to climate changes. It is expected that the SOC pools in the Karkonosze Mts and similar medium-elevation mountain ranges of Central Europe will decrease due to the larger scale of phenomena which decrease SOC pools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to calculate and evaluate the changes in spatial distribution of soil erosion rates related to land use/cover changes and climate changes in the Sudetes Mts. within the last 150 years. Various methods were used, including GIS analysis of historical and contemporary land use/cover and climate data, spatial analysis of soil erosion modeling using RUSLE. Changes in spatial distribution of precipitation sums were estimated based on spatial deterministic-stochastic models (regression-kriging) applied to the measurement data from the entire Sudetes region in both analyzed periods. There was a pronounced increase in the area of forests and grasslands at the expenses of arable grounds due to depopulation and consequent land abandonment. These changes started already in the 1880s but they were intensified after World War II. On average soil erosion in the study area decreased by 76.2% (from 4.03 t ha − 1 y − 1 in the 19th century to present 0.96 t ha − 1 y − 1 ). However, the changes in erosion are highly diverse locally in the studied region with the maximum decrease of 8–16 t ha − 1 y − 1 on steep and higher slopes, which were transformed from arable grounds to forests and grasslands. While both land use and climate changes took place in the study area, changes in land use/cover have a much larger impact on calculated soil erosion rate than climate change. The abandonment of land and the development of spontaneous succession of vegetation limited soil erosion in a very effective way. The values obtained by RUSLE modeling were compared with other values of soil erosion from various field measurements in the Sudetes Mountains in order to evaluate the model. The measurements were based on the experimental plots and sediments stored within the agricultural terraces and in the water reservoirs of various sizes. While the specific sites show large differences in denudation rates, the mean contemporary erosion calculated from our model (0.06 mm y − 1 ) corresponds with the average rate of denudation, which was calculated for the entire Sudetes: 0.05–0.01 mm y − 1 (Jahn 1968). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Late Quaternary alluvial sedimentary units in the Guadiana Menor River valley, a tributary of the Guadalquivir River in southern Spain are described based on geomorphological mapping, sedimentological analysis, palaeosol development, and radiocarbon chronology. Four infill units in the valleys were differentiated with surfaces at + 45 (MU1), + 70 (MU2), + 8–6 (MU3), and + 10 m (MU4) above the riverbed. Each unit is capped by a palaeosol. Unit MU1 (Late Pleistocene: > 43.5–34 cal kyr BP) consists of gravel and sand in channels and bars in braided river systems distally evolving to silty clays in the floodplain with vertic and clayic calcisols. It is capped by dark clays with gleysol development representing wetland environments in endorheic basins. Channelized gravels alternating with sandy silts make up unit MU2 (34–24 cal kyr BP), capped by a gypsisol and interpreted as a semi-arid alluvial fan distally evolving to playa-lake depositional systems. Unit MU3 (5600–2700 cal yr BP), extending along the valley bottom, is represented by gravels and sand distally evolving to a red and white laminated rhythmite of silt and clay deposited in the playa. Unit MU4 (600–700 cal yr BP) is scattered and represented by centimetre-thick gravels and sand sheet layers deposited by sheet flows in semi-arid constrained alluvial fans. Alternating intervals of alluvial aggradation (> 43.5–24 kyr BP, 5700–2700 cal yr BP, Late Middle Ages) and fluvial incision (24–6 cal kyr BP, 2700 cal yr BP to 1200 AD, 1500 AD to present) are interpreted as valley responses to climate variations and changes in land use. Two regional geomorphological changes are recorded in the sediments: (1) climate-induced aridification after 34 cal kyr BP with an arid climax after 24 cal kyr BP before the incision linked to the last glacial period, and (2) two human-forced aggradation stages (5600–2700 cal yr BP and 1200–1400 AD) interrupting the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene incisional trend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to assess the impacts of projected climate change on a Mediterranean catchment, and to analyze the effects of a suite of representative land use practices as an adaptation tool to reduce climate change-driven erosion and hydrologic extremes. Relevant climatic variables from the ERA-Interim global atmospheric reanalysis of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) were downscaled for the study area, and perturbed with the anomalies of 23 global circulation models for three emission scenarios (B1, A1B and A2). Both a projected daily rainfall time series for the period 2010–2100, and a single precipitation event with a one-hundred year return period were used to assess the impact of climate change. The downscaled data were fed into a distributed hydro-sedimentary model (TETIS) with five land use configurations representative of future demographic tendencies, geographical characteristics and land management policies (e.g. European Union CAP). The projected changes showed a general decrease in runoff and sediment production by the end of the century regardless of land use configuration. Sediment production showed a positive relationship with an increase in agricultural land and a decrease in natural land under present day agricultural management. According to our simulations, some conservation practices in agriculture can effectively reduce net erosion while maintaining agricultural production. As such, they can play a critical role as an adaptation tool to reduce climate change impacts in the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates paleoenvironmental changes over time and ancient land use related to agriculture at the Bronze Age settlement of Baeksuk, Cheonan, South Korea. Geoarcheological analytic methods including soil micromorphological, physical and multi-element analyses were employed to examine the alluvial valley fill between hills occupied by a large-scale Bronze Age settlement with abundant crop remains including rice, but which was scarcely inhabited in later periods. The location of the cultivation fields remains as yet undetermined despite a full excavation. This research reveals that there were four phases in the build-up of the valley fill from wetland to periodically dry wetland and, eventually, to the present day rice paddy, forming a cumulic A horizon. In particular, the lower buried horizon may have served as the earliest location for growing rice with surface disturbance noted by textural pedofeature formation, while the upper part of the soil profile exhibits features typical of paddysol with high iron and manganese accumulations. The analyses of the valley soil profile suggest plausible interactions between human agricultural activities and environment through rice paddy cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss of soil and subsequent export of sediments to streamflows by water erosion constitute significant environmental threats because of the areal extent typically involved and the agricultural activities that they support. Climate change is expected to impact on the availability of water and therefore on soil resources. In this context, hydrological and soil erosion models allow for the mapping and quantifying of soil redistribution and sediment productions for different land uses and climatic scenarios that can be used for valuable projections for catchment management. A simulation experiment was achieved by using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model in the mountainous catchment of the Barasona reservoir (1509 km 2 , Central Spanish Pyrenees), which is characterized by a heterogeneous climate and topography, that brings it a varied mosaic of soil types and land uses. In order to investigate differences in sediment productions from the land uses under different climatic conditions the sediment produced from the land uses was assessed for two years. 2003 and 2005 were selected to represent contrasted precipitations and wet and dry conditions, respectively. Moreover, the distribution of land uses and climate in the catchment enabled the division of the catchment into two parts which allowed the assessment of the sediment productions in the northern alpine and the southern Mediterranean parts of the catchment. The specific sediment yield varied largely in relation with precipitation, seasons, land use types and catchment parts, from 0 to 243 t ha − 1 year − 1 . Furthermore, according to the prediction of the IPCC and climatic studies for the region an increase of 2 °C was simulated to assess the impact on sediment yield. Different responses to the temperature increment were observed between wetter (2003 and northern part) and drier (2005 and southern part) conditions and also for the land use types. Great decreases in sediment production were observed for the 2 °C increase scenario in wetter conditions, whereas low decreases with some increments occurred in the drier conditions. The proposed model proved useful for the assessment of the behaviour in sediment production from the land uses under different climatic conditions in large alpine–prealpine catchments at a regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Land use change and climate variability influence water resources availability and separation of these influences are important for water resources management. Methods SWAT model and the Mann–Kendall method were used in this study which investigated the spatiotemporal variations of blue and green water resources under different land use change, agricultural irrigation expansion and climate variability scenarios during the 1980s–2000s for the Weihe River Basin. Results Farmland area decreased by 1.4% and woodland, grassland, and construction land area increased by 0.6%, 0.2%, and 0.6%, respectively. The combined impact of land use change, agricultural irrigation expansion and climate variation decreased the blue water flow, green water flow, and green water storage by 21.62 mm year − 1 , 35.01 mm year − 1 and 28.07 mm year − 1 , respectively. Climate variability decreased the blue/green water flow and green water storage, land use change decreased the blue water and green water flow while it increased the green water storage, irrigation expansion decreased the blue water flow while it increased the green water flow/storage. The spatial distribution showed an uneven change in the Weihe River Basin. Together, we suggested that the variability of water resources availability in the Weihe River Basin was mainly attributed to climate variability, while land use change plays a key role in the sub-basins which experienced dramatic changes in land use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and human activities have received significant attention in recent years. We assessed streamflow record in the Luan River basin in the period 1956–2000 in response to climate variation and anthropogenic factors. Analyses of annual and seasonal series showed that the streamflow had a significant decreasing trend, with an abrupt change point in 1979. Human activity had more effects on streamflow changes than climate, for the change of annual streamflow, climate variability contributed 40.89%, and human activities contributed 59.11%; for the change of seasonal streamflow, climate variability contributed 43.53% (wet season) and 7.15% (dry season), and human activities contributed 56.47% (wet season) and 92.85% (dry season). In effects of human activity, reservoir regulation had a larger proportion than land-use change, it contributed 38.86% in the changes of annual streamflow, while land-use change contributed only 20.26%; and for the change of seasonal streamflow, reservoir regulation contributed 39.48% (wet season) and 52.14% (dry season), while land-use change contributed only 16.99% (wet season) and 40.71% (dry season). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A methodology to select climate models to model future soil erosion is proposed. • A methodology to model soil erosion under future land use changes is proposed. • The most likely best- and worst-case climate scenarios are developed. • Results show that soil erosion will increase under the mean of future scenarios. • Winter wheat is an economically viable option to reduce future soil erosion. Soil erosion by water from arable land poses a serious threat to on-field agricultural productivity and the wider environment through off-site damage. Multiple studies show that climate change will worsen the impacts of soil erosion in various regions. However, these studies are limited by (1) the lack of any thorough evaluation process in applying climate scenarios to drive soil erosion models, and (2) the failure to consider the role of changing land use under future climate change, despite the evidence that it is more important than rainfall changes in driving increased erosion. Using the WEPP soil erosion model, these methodological gaps are addressed in this study for a small catchment in Belgium that is both heavily impacted by soil erosion and boasting an extensive array of mitigation measures. We develop a novel and comprehensive methodology to rigorously and efficiently select suitable climate models specifically for simulating soil erosion by water, and examine the impact of a range of environmentally and economically viable land use choices on soil erosion. The main findings reveal that our climate model selection methodology is successful in generating the widest range of likely future scenarios from a small number of models, compared with other selection methods. Our novel methodology reveals that the magnitude and frequency of soil erosion events will increase considerably under the mean of all scenarios between 2041 and 2100 with existing land management. Winter wheat represents the most economically and environmentally viable land use choice to effectively mitigate future soil erosion when compared to other land use alternatives under the full range of likely future climate scenarios. This research illuminates the importance of carefully tuned climate model selection and land use changes for modelling future soil erosion by water so the best- and worst-case scenarios can be adequately prepared for under a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Litter and tree roots modify the proportion of soil aggregate fractions. • Extensive agriculture implies similar soil carbon storage than agroforestry. • Agroforestry increases the carbon associated with the small soil aggregate fractions. The land use sector currently represents ∼25% of the global greenhouse gas emissions, thus this human activity is having a huge impact on climate change. Semi-arid climate areas, which are widely distributed, are particularly influenced by such climate change. In these areas, land use changes have transformed the entire landscape and increased the greenhouse gas emissions. However, in semi-arid climate areas, the information on the effect of climate change is scarce and usually centred on one single type of land use. For the land uses (forest, agricultural and agroforestry) traditionally found in the semi-arid area in South Portugal, this study aimed to evaluate (i) the soil chemical (pH) and physical properties (bulk density and percentage of different soil aggregate fractions: 250–2000; 53–250 and <53 μm) and (ii) the carbon (C) storage in whole soil and each soil aggregate fraction in land with over 100 years of the same use. The results show that after >100 years with the same land use, C storage in the whole soil was similar in the plots with extensive agriculture based on the agroecology principles to that in the agroforestry plots. However, the concentration and storage of C in the microaggregates (53–250 μm) and the silt + clay soil fraction (<53 μm) were generally higher for the forest and agroforestry land uses than for the agricultural land use due to the tree effect. This C associated with the smallest soil fractions is very stable and is retained in the soil in the long term. In this context, agroforestry systems improve the soil C storage in the long term at the same time that agricultural production is allowed compared to the traditional forest systems. Therefore, the establishment and maintenance of agroforestry systems in the semi-arid climate areas is a sustainable land use for climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Evaluation of different land use on SOC stock under climate change scenarios. • Both decreases and increases of SOC stocks would be possible in the future. • Under high emission scenario SOC stock increases to 6.23 million tons in cashew LUS. • RothC Model indicated cashew plantations as the most prominent sink of SOC storage. • Promotion of agroforestry systems are imperative to improve SOC storage. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is one of the significant soil components influencing soil functions and soil processes. However, little is known about the impact of land-use change on SOC dynamics on coastal agroecosystems. We, therefore, simulated the impact of land use on SOC stock using RothC model under different climate change scenarios. In the present study, natural forest and pasture lands are the native land uses, while cashew, arecanut, and coconut plantations were established about 70–80 years ago from the natural forest. Measured SOC stocks were significantly higher in cashew and forest land uses (109.5 and 88.6 t C/ha) and much lower in coconut, arecanut and pasture lands (64.1–71.0 t C/ha). The study showed that under projected climate change conditions in Goa state and depending on emission scenarios, both decreases and increases of SOC stocks would be possible. By the end of the century, SOC stock in cashew would decrease by 4.3 t C/ha (RCP 4.5) and increase by 2.4 t C/ha (RCP 8.5), in coconut the SOC change was negligible (0.2 t C/ha) in RCP 4.5 while increased by 3.2 t C/ha in RCP 8.5. Arecanut, pasture and forest land uses showed a marked SOC decrease in RCP 4.5 (ranging from 5.2 to 5.4 t C/ha) and negligible positive (0.6–0.7 t C/ha) or negative (0.6 t C/ha) changes in RCP 8.5. Overall, the model indicated cashew plantations as the most prominent sink of SOC storage, while coconut and pasture are not viable sinks of SOC in the study area. We suggest promoting cashew, arecanut, and coconut land use system integrated with tree components and pasture to improve the SOC storage and other ecosystem services in the coastal agroecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Pollen records reconstruct the late Holocene land use and vegetation dynamics. • Human land use has impact on the regional vegetation and landscape since 50 CE. • A large-scale transformation of the landscape occurred since 750 CE. • Late Holocene vegetation changes were mainly controlled by temperature. Knowledge of the past interactions between climate and human land use is essential for understanding the possible future relationships between global change and human societies. In this study, we used pollen and other multi-proxy analyses of the sediments from Xingyun Lake in central Yunnan Plateau to reconstruct the history of land use and ecosystem dynamics during the last 3,200 years. The pollen results indicate that the vegetation became more open gradually and many secondary forests began to grow during the last 100 years. During the Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA), the vegetation is dominated by broad-leaved trees, while during the Little Ice Age (LIA) the broad-leaved trees declined but Picea/Abies expanded. Human land use has impacted on the regional vegetation and landscape since 50 CE; large-scale human land use occurred after 750 CE. The sediment accumulation rate (SAR), pollen record, and 14C age offsets reveal that soil erosion is well correlated with human activity and changes in vegetation cover. Before 750 CE, soil erosion was probably limited, but after 750 CE it increased drastically as a result of human activity, and then decreased during the last 100 years. According to the results of the redundancy analysis (RDA), we conclude that climate had an important impact on the regional vegetation, and the late Holocene vegetation changes of Xingyun Lake catchment were mainly influenced by temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: For several decades, global change has resulted in an increase in runoff in the Sahelian belt, provoking major changes in the quality and quantity of sediments transported by drainage networks. One of the astonishing consequences is the establishment of numerous permanent lakes. The origins of particulate organic matter (OM) preserved within lacustrine sediments of three lakes were investigated by coupling optical observations (palynofacies) and bulk geochemistry (Rock-Eval 6 pyrolysis). An initial estimate of particulate organic carbon (OC) stored in these lacustrine sediments was assessed. Soil organic matter (SOM) was sampled from the surface (0-10cm) of various land-use and land-cover areas and was characterized and compared with sedimentary organic matter. Our results reveal that Lake Tankalawal is subjected to high autochthonous organic sedimentation (TOC ranges between 3.0 and 10.0wt.%), while lakes Bangou Kirey and Bi are characterized by weak sedimentation of non-indigenous OM originating from the soil erosion and shore vegetation (TOC<3.0wt.%). In sediments, the effects of early diagenesis on the OM induce not only a loss of labile and aquatic OM but also a significant loss of terrestrial OM, which is supposed to be more resistant than its aquatic counterpart. Both the preservation of OM in top sediments and the relative preservation of terrestrial OM impact the OC storage in lakes. Indeed, OC storage in lacustrine sediments (Lake Bangou Kirey) was two to seven times higher than the OC storage in Sahelian soils, where greater contributions of terrestrial OM to sedimentary OM are associated with lower OC storage in lacustrine sediments. For lakes Bangou Kirey and Bi, OC accumulation rates were also assessed; due to the identification of a sedimentary limit corresponding to the establishment of permanent lakes dated earlier 1960s. High OC fluxes were estimated and ranged between 104 and 213gOCm−2 yr−1. Compared with other OC accumulation rates for various African lakes, these high values are similar to those calculated for reservoirs and are related to anthropogenic pressure, soil textures favoring erosion, and proper physical and chemical conditions for OM preservation in sediments. Accordingly, in these Sahelian environments that are generally viewed as non-efficient in storing OC, we claim that global change could promote a new OC sink. If other similar studies reinforce our assertion, then regional C budgets should be revisited. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the framework of the EU-INTERREG-IVb-project ForeStClim (Transnational Forestry Management Strategies in Response to Regional Climate Change Impacts) a combination of experimental methods has been applied for the investigation of the spatial and temporal variation and intensity of overland flow generation and soil erosion processes. In the presented study, the influences of land-use type and land-management practices on overland flow generation and soil erosion are investigated for three low mountain range catchments in Luxembourg and in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The key questions of the study can be summarized as follows: Can Hortonian overland flow generation be observed on all land-use types in the investigated areas in the Central European low mountain range? How can the contribution of forested areas to the flood and erosion dynamics be evaluated under humid climate conditions in Central Europe and what are the most important factors of influence? The results of the presented study show that forest areas can also be sources for overland flow and sediment, particularly artificial linear structures like unpaved roads and harvester tracks, where runoff coefficients between 41.2 and 97.1%, and erosion values between 2.6 and 122.5gm−2 were determined using rainfall experiments. Another important factor is soil water repellency, this factor can pre-eminently be observed under rather dry soil moisture conditions in summer and can have severe influence on overland flow generation particularly in forested areas. The results of the rainfall experiments in coniferous forests show runoff coefficients ranging from 0 to 86.9%, here the high values can all be traced back to water repellency influence, as the field observations suggest. In the context of flood generation, it is becoming more and more important to improve knowledge on overland flow generation and soil erosion processes occurring in forested catchments, particularly considering the expected climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mountain environments are heterogeneous and dynamic geomorphic environments sensitive to land use and climate change. Heterogenic environmental conditions result in a large variability of mountain soil properties, and thus in large uncertainties of inventories of soil organic carbon (SOC). In this study we analyzed the variability of soil properties associated with the calculation of a SOC inventory in a mountain environment in the Canadian Rocky Mountains (Alberta). Therefore, we calculated the analytical uncertainty and spatial variability of SOC stocks using Gaussian error propagation and Taylor series expansion along seventeen 36m long transects to identify major sources of uncertainty. SOC stocks in the upper 10cm and 30cm are 2.4±0.7kgCm−2 and 6.4±5.6kgCm−2, respectively. The bulk densities generated the largest uncertainty associated with the analytical precision (10.0%). However, analytical uncertainties (ranging between 2.3 and 24.2%) are much smaller than the uncertainty introduced by the spatial variability, for instance of the coarse fraction (63.8%) and SOC concentration (40.1%). This study contributes to insufficiently considered analysis of uncertainties in SOC stocks and demonstrate the high potential of nested sampling approaches to identify sources of uncertainties of SOC stocks. To reduce the uncertainties associated with heterogeneous mountain environments, we propose to apply more sophisticated statistics (e.g. regression analysis considering frequency distributions of measured coarse fractions in different geomorphic environments) rather than simple mean per unit approaches, as frequently applied in regionalization studies of soil properties. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A huge amount of soil organic and inorganic carbon (SOC and SIC) is stored in soils and those stored carbon (C) plays an important role in affecting the global climate change. Knowledge on the spatial distribution of and land management effects on soil C in the Eurasian steppes is essential for understanding its impact on the global climate change. We investigated both the distribution of SOC and SIC contents and the effect of land cultivation on SOC content across a transect of continental steppes in Inner Mongolia, including the western plateau and the eastern plain. There were weak increasing trends in SOC and SIC from west to east across the transect. In general, SOC decreased but SIC increased with increasing soil depth. Both SOC and SIC were markedly different among various land uses in the Xilin River basin, approximately located in the center of the studied continental steppes. Grasslands and meadows together accounted for 93.9 and 98.1%, respectively, of the total SOC and SIC storages in the basin, whereas wetlands played an insignificant role in soil C storage due to both their small area and sandy soil texture. Land cultivation caused losses of 7.7 and 18.1% of SOC in the 0–10cm soil layer on the western plateau and the eastern plain, respectively. The loss of SOC mainly occurred in the coarse-size fraction (>0.25mm) in the surface 0–10cm soil layer. Sandy soil texture, low mean annual temperature and infrequent land cultivation somewhat limited the loss of SOC in the continental steppes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Landuse and climate change impact on sediment yield was assessed in Songkhram River Basin. • Songkhram River Basin is expected to be warmer and drier in future. • Climate change impact on sediment yield is expected to be lesser than climate change. • Sediment yield is expected to decrease with the combined impact of landuse and climate change. The Songkhram River Basin (SRB) is the second largest river basin in Northeast Thailand. The nourishment of the SRB community mainly depends on water resources, especially fisheries. However, changes in land use and climate are causing problems to the livelihood of the SRB community. For sustainable water resources management, an integrated impact assessment of climate and land use change on sediment yield is crucial. Therefore, this study quantifies the combined impact of climate and land use change on sediment yield using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). An ensemble of three Regional Circulation Models (RCM) from Coupled Model Intercomparison Projects (CMIP5s) was used for future climate projection under representative concentration pathways RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The projected climate shows a rise in both minimum and maximum temperature over 4.7 °C and a fall in precipitation over 6% by the 2080s. For land use, two scenarios, namely; economic and conservation, were developed using the land use change model, Dyna-CLUE. The simulated outcomes illustrate that, in the future, climate change is projected to cause a decrease in flow by 42.8% and 51.7% under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, respectively. On the other hand, the land use change is expected to increase the sediment yield in future. It is responsible for an increase of 2.3% and 7.1% under economic scenarios, a decrease of 0.9%, and an increase of 3.9% under the conservation scenario, respectively, under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. Overall, climate and land use change play a contrasting role in the study area. The combined impact of both results in a decreasing trend of sediment yield by 40.5% and 44.6% under the economic scenario, and 45% and 47.8% for the conservation scenario under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study examines the interplay between long-term climate changes, compounded natural disturbances and human driven land-use changes on catastrophic soil erosion of the heathland ecosystem of Haukadalsheiði, south Iceland. Soil erosion was catastrophic for three centuries (~1660–1960 AD) and was characterized by almost total loss of vegetation and underlying soil. Soil erosion resulted in a desertified, barren landscape that had no resemblance to the original heathland ecosystem. Soil erosion was spatially reconstructed in a chronological order using information on the average progress of eroding fronts, anecdotal and historical evidence along with tephrochronological information. The progress of the fastest eroding front was rapid (29.7myr−1). Human driven land‐use changes played a role in the heathland degradation: relentless free-range grazing by livestock resulted in decreased resistance of heathland communities to soil erosion. Adverse climate-change during Little Ice Age (LIA: 1550–1850 AD) intensified the effect of grazing. The catastrophic soil erosion was triggered by a massive sand encroachment ~1660 AD from three outwash sand-plains along the glacial River Far. The sand drift was sustained by dry northern glacial (katabatic) winds that drove the soil erosion. Long-term climate change resulted in glacier fluctuation that caused changes in water discharge in the River Far; sand drift was intense during periods of no water discharge (~1660–1708 AD and ~1800–1929 AD) and following glacial river floods (1708, 1884, 1902, 1929 and 1939 AD).Also, sand drift was intense due to unusually frequent volcanic tephra fallouts (1693, 1721 and 1766 AD). Information on factors that increase the risk of soil erosion and trigger and drive soil erosion is critical in understanding catastrophic soil erosion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Soils are the third biggest sink of carbon on the earth. Hence, suitable land uses for a climatic condition are expected to sequester optimum atmospheric carbon in soils. But, information on how climatic conditions and land uses influence carbon accumulation in the soils on the Himalayan Mountains is not known. This study reports the impact of four climatic conditions (sub-tropical, altitude: 500–1200m; temperate 1200–2000m; lower alpine 2000–3000m; upper alpine, 3000–3500m) and four land uses (forest, grassland, horticulture, agriculture) on the concentrations and stocks of soil organic carbon (SOC) in upper (0–30cm) and deeper (30–100cm) soil depths on the western Himalayan Mountains of India. The study also explored the drivers which influenced the SOC stock build up on the mountains. Rainfall and soil moisture showed quadratic relations, whereas temperature declined linearly with the altitude. SOC stock as well as concentration was the highest (101.8Mgha−1 in 0–30cm, 227.97Mgha−1 in 0–100cm) in temperate and the lowest in sub-tropical climate (37Mgha−1 in 0–30cm, 107.04Mgha−1 in 0–100cm). Pattern of SOC stock build up across the altitude was: temperate>lower alpine>upper alpine>sub-tropical. SOC stocks in all land uses across the climatic conditions, except agriculture in lower alpine, was higher (0.7 to 41.6%) in the deeper than upper soil depth. SOC stocks in both the depths showed quadratic relations with soil temperature and soil moisture. Other factors like fine soil particles, land-use factor and altitude influenced positively whereas slope and pH, negatively to the SOC stocks. In all climatic conditions, other than temperate, SOC stocks were greater in natural ecosystems like forests and pastures (112.5 to 247.5Mgha−1) than agriculture (63 to 120.4Mgha−1). In temperate climate, SOC stock in agriculture (253.6Mgha−1) on well formed terraces was a little higher than forest (231.3Mgha−1) on natural slope. These observations, suggest that land uses on temperate climate may be treated as potential sinks for sequestration of the atmospheric carbon. However, agriculture in subtropical climate need to be pursued with due SOC protection measures like the temperate climate for greater sequestration of the atmospheric carbon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Tigray Plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea is vulnerable to environmental change, yet environmental influences on the rise and fall of the civilizations that once existed there are almost unexplored. We sampled sections of gully walls for palaeoenvironmental proxies from two sites: 1) Adi Kolen on the southern outskirts of the Plateau''s most developed former empire, the Aksumite, and 2) Adigrat near polities dating to at least ca. 3000cal yr BP. A multi-proxy approach for examining local variation in palaeoenvironments was evaluated that included stable isotopic and elemental analyses (δ 13CSOM, δ 15N, %TOC, and %TN) of soil, and charcoal identification. An increase in δ 15N values from older soils in Adi Kolen (4400cal yr BP) and Adigrat (2900cal yr BP) until 1200cal yr BP is not explained by changes in δ 15N that occur with time in an unchanging environment. It may instead indicate an overall decrease in rainfall from the earlier times until 1200cal yr BP. In one Adigrat section, the decreases in organic δ 13C and increases in C/N molar ratios from older to younger soil could have resulted from changes that occur over time, per se. In the remaining sections, however, δ 13CSOM trends more likely reflect changes in the biomass of C4 relative to C3 plants (% C4 biomass). Changes in% C4 biomass may reflect climate and/or land use. Deciphering which may be aided by analyses of the other proxies. Identified charcoal suggests that both sites supported some juniper forest types until very recently but that forests may have been a more important and dynamic component of Adigrat''s vegetation history than Adi Kolen''s. If environment affected the trajectories of the kingdoms of the Tigray Plateau, these results suggest that the exact nature of the changes in climate differed among kingdoms. The kingdoms prior to 1200cal yr BP may have been exposed to increasing aridity punctuated with relatively wetter intervals. Thereafter, general changes in climate are not apparent. Land clearing dynamics are likely to have had a more consistent effect on the trajectories of kingdoms than climate changes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Linear erosion (LE) induced either by piping or overland flow is one of the most active factors in the evolution of soils. During single storm events LE may remove enormous amounts of soil material from the uplands to the bottomlands and has thus become a broad challenge for food supply, food security, and human health. Recent and rapid changes in land-use and climate patterns in the sloping lands of tropical areas may dramatically increase LE. Our main objective was to investigate to what extent one could use direct flow velocity estimations from dynamic models for predicting LE initiation and development at the event level. The second objective was to estimate the impact of expected land-use and climate changes on LE. The study was conducted in the 0.62 km2 watershed of northern Laos presented in. Field observations of the formation and the development of LE features throughout 2001 were compared to flow velocity estimations from an existing surface water routing algorithm developed at Utrecht University ([De Roo, A.P.J., Wesseling, C.G. and Ritsema, C.J. 1996. LISEM: a single event physically based hydrologic and soil erosion model for drainage basins. I: theory, input and output. hydrological processes 10 (8): 1107–1117.]). In 2001, two main rainfall events were responsible for the formation or development of 14 linear features with a total length of 972 m and an erosion rate of 3.5 Mg ha−1. The water routing algorithm was calibrated using the water and the sediment hydrographs observed at the watershed outlet during the first rainfall event. Assuming realistic estimations of flow velocity in hillslopes, a threshold of 0.062 m s−1 for linear erosion estimated over 10-m cells was defined. This threshold, validated using the remaining rainfall event, accurately predicted the length (mean error of estimate of less than 15%) and location of LE features. Using this simulation tool, an increase of the percentage of land under cultivation from 9% to 100% resulted in 600% increase in linear erosion. The tested scenarios of climate changes had less impact on linear erosion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Myjava Hill Land is part of the area with the highest density of permanent gullies in Slovakia (up to 11 km km−2). Gullies are often 10–15 m deep, and occasionally extend >20 m. The pattern and density of gullies have been controlled primarily by the original land use from the pre-collectivization era. Old maps and historical sources indicate two to three periods of gully formation. The central part of the area, settled between the second half of the 16th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, was affected by gully formation in two periods, the first between the end of the 16th century and the 1730s and the second roughly between the 1780s and 1840s. Marginal parts of the study area to the west and south–west, which were settled earlier, may have been affected by disastrous gullying as early as the 14th century. Gullies were formed during periods of extensive forest clearance and expansion of farmland, but the triggering mechanism of gullying was extreme rainfalls during the Little Ice Age. However, periods of gully formation in the Myjava Hill Land were not fully synchronous with the well-known phases of gullying in other central European countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] • Temporal patterns of sediment OC burial over the past ~100 years were studied. • Increasing OCAR during 1880–1980 was favored by land use promoting P input. • Decreasing OCAR since 1980 was associated with enhanced OM decomposition and OC mineralization. • OC pool may be mediated under projected climate warming scenarios for deep lakes. Inland waterbodies play an important role in the global carbon cycle, acting both as carbon sources with organic carbon (OC) mineralization and as sinks with OC burial in sediments. Under recent impacts of global warming, anthropogenic land-use change and nutrient supply, however, there is a limited knowledge regarding OC dynamics in sediments of large, deep lakes especially in subtropical alpine regions. Here, we studied the patterns of OC burial and the potential regulating factors using multiple sedimentary proxies and observational records in Lugu Lake (southwest China) over the past ~100 years. Comparisons of 15 sediment cores in different areas of the lake reveal similar temporal trends in OC content and other sediment parameters, indicating coherent patterns of whole-lake sedimentary environmental change dominated by watershed human perturbation. Based on C/N ratios and δ13C org analyses, the sediment OC has primarily been autochthonous in source. OC accumulation rates (OCAR) increased during 1880–1980, from ~14 to 43 g C m−2 yr−1 in a central core (LGS), mainly resulting from elevated primary production under increased phosphorus input and soil erosion. Subsequently, OCAR decreased considerably to ~15 g C m−2 yr−1, although the phosphorus supply and lake primary productivity remained high. We infer the OCAR decline likely resulted from increased organic matter decomposition and OC mineralization in the water column because of climate warming and lake-water thermal stratification. This phenomenon might mask the positive contribution of primary production to OC burial. Our findings suggest that the commonly observed synergistically positive effects of warming and eutrophication on sediment OC burial may be impaired in deep lakes, which needs further investigations across ecological, climatic and land-use gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated assessment (IA) modelling can be an effective tool to gain insight into the dynamics of coupled earth system (land use, climate etc.) and socio-economic components. Quantifying and communicating uncertainties is a challenge of any scientific assessment, but is here magnified by the complex and boundary-crossing nature of IA models. Understanding the dynamics of coupled earth and socio-economic systems require data and methods from multiple disciplines, each with its own perspective on epistemological uncertainties (parametric and structural uncertainties), and its own protocols for assessing uncertainty. During the Paris Agreement, the lack of uncertainty analyses (UA) in IAs was risen (Rogelj et al. 2017) and calls for close collaboration of scientists coming from different fields. In this study, we review how uncertainties are tackled in a range of science disciplines that are related to global change including climate, hydrology, energy and land use, and which contribute to IA modelling. We conducted a meta-analysis to identify the contributing disciplines, and review which type of uncertainties are assessed. We then describe sources of uncertainty (e.g. parameter values, model structure), and present opportunities for improved assessment and communication of uncertainties in IA modelling. We show in our meta-analysis that parametric uncertainty is the uncertainty analysis that has been applied the most, while structural uncertainty is less commonly applied, with the exception of the energy scientific discipline. We finish our study with key recommendations to improve uncertainty analysis such as including risk analysis. By embracing uncertainties, resilient and effective solutions for climate change mitigation and adaptation could be better communicated, identified and implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]