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Wood discoloration was investigated in 721 paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) trees from 146 sites across the managed forest of Quebec, Canada. Discoloration was present at breast height in 85% of trees, but its impact was limited in terms of tree basal area and volume, with proportions of 6.4% and 3.6%, respectively. These two measures were strongly correlated. Discoloration changed wood appearance but had no effect on microfibril angle and modulus of elasticity. Discolored wood was nevertheless denser, probably due to the accumulation of colored extractives. Predictive models were also developed and applied to 415 711 paper birch trees from 51689 inventory plots across the province to study regional variation. Higher proportions of discolored basal area were obtained in the southwestern areas of the province where the climate is warmer and drier. In these areas, paper birch trees are larger and, likely, support bigger branches which can cause larger columns of discoloration when broken. Lower proportions were found in eastern regions where snowfall is more abundant. Smaller, more flexible branches in trees growing in these areas could explain this result. This study confirms the feasibility of large-scale mapping of wood discoloration in standing trees based on forest inventory and climate data. Key words: paper birch, wood discoloration, wood properties, regional variation, climate. La coloration du bois a ete etudiee chez 721 tiges de bouleau blanc (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) provenant de 146 sites repartis a travers la foret amenagee du Quebec, au Canada. La coloration etait presente chez 85 % des arbres mais son impact etait faible : elle occupait seulement 6,4 % de la surface terriere et 3,6 % du volume des tiges. Ces deux variables etaient etroitement correlees. La coloration a modifie l'apparence du bois mais n'a eu aucun effet sur l'angle des microfibrilles ni sur le module d'elasticite. Le bois colore est neanmoins plus dense, vraisemblablement a cause de l'accumulation de matieres extractibles colorees. Des modeles de prediction ont egalement ete elabores et appliques a 415 711 tiges de bouleau blanc provenant de 51689 parcelles d'inventaire reparties a travers la province pour etudier la variation regionale. De plus grandes proportions de surface terriere de bois colore ont ete obtenues dans les regions du sud-ouest de la province oU le climat est plus chaud et plus sec. Dans ces regions, les tiges de bouleau blanc sont plus grosses et supportent probablement de plus grosses branches qui peuvent causer de plus grandes colonnes de coloration lorsqu'elles cassent. De plus faibles proportions de coloration ont ete trouvees dans les regions de l'est oU les chutes de neige sont plus abondantes. Le fait que les arbres croissant dans ces regions aient des branches plus petites et plus flexibles pourrait expliquer ce resultat. Cette etude confirme que la cartographie de la coloration a grande echelle dans les arbres sur pied est realisable a partir de donnees d'inventaire forestier et du climat. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles: bouleau blanc, coloration du bois, proprietes du bois, variation regionale, climat., Introduction Paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) is one of the most abundant hardwood species in Canada with a natural range from eastern to western coast (Safford et al. 1990). In [...]

We use a dynamic, global computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to capture the economic impacts of internet adoption, modeled through reduced demand in the newsprint and printing and writing paper (pulp and paper) industries. Global newsprint consumption is estimated to fall dramatically by 2030. We rely on estimates from another study that captures the change in global pulp and paper consumption using the global forest products model (GFPM), based on two scenarios: (i) full per capita internet adoption by 2100 and (ii) more rapid full internet adoption by 2050. We incorporate reductions in pulpwood consumption into a global multiregional dynamic CGE model to estimate economy- wide impacts in Canadian provinces, the United States, and the rest of the world. Results indicated that the year 2050 internet adoption scenario would result in a reduction in cumulative discounted gross domestic product (GDP) by as much as 17% in some regions of Canada, reduce GDP by 5.8% in the United States, and increase GDP by 3.3% in the rest of the world from 2006 to 2030. These findings highlight the costs of internet adoption, leaving net benefit analysis of adoption to future work. Key words: internet adoption, pulp and paper, computable general equilibrium, global impacts. Nous avons utilise un modele d'equilibre general calculable (EGC) dynamique et mondial pour saisir les repercussions economiques de l'adoption de l'Internet, modelisees selon la reduction de la demande dans l'industrie du papier journal et des papiers d'impression et d'ecriture (pates et papiers). On estime que la consommation mondiale de papier journal chutera dramatiquement d'ici 2030. Nous nous appuyons sur les estimations d'une autre etude qui saisit le changement de la consommation mondiale des pates et papiers en utilisant le modele mondial des produits forestiers sur la base de deux scenarios : l'adoption de l'Internet par tous les habitants (i) d'ici 2100 et (ii) plus rapidement, soit d'ici 2050. Nous avons inclus les reductions de consommation de bois de pate dans un modele mondial et multiregional d'EGC dynamique pour estimer les impacts sur l'ensemble de l'economie dans les provinces canadiennes, les Etats-Unis et le reste du monde. Les resultats demontrent que le scenario d'adoption de l'Internet d'ici 2050 aurait pour consequence une reduction du PIB cumule actualise de pres de 17 % dans certaines regions du Canada et de 5,8 % aux Etats-Unis ainsi qu'une augmentation de 3,3 % du PIB dans le reste du monde entre 2006 et 2030. Ces conclusions mettent en evidence les couts de l'adoption de l'Internet laissant l'analyse des benefices nets de l'adoption a des recherches ulterieures. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles: adoption de l'Internet, pates et papier, equilibre general calculable, impacts mondiaux., 1. Introduction The demand for newspaper and other print media has begun to decline worldwide after decades of growth (see Fig. 1). This reduction can potentially be attributed to a [...]

We analyze the total factor productivity (TFP) of the pulp and paper industry in three Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec) and in three United States (US) states that are contiguously located south of the border (Washington, Illinois, and Maine) over the period of 1971 to 2005. We find that the industry in the three Canadian provinces had much higher TFP growth rates in the era following the Free-Trade Agreement (FTA) signed in 1988. In terms of productivity level, this relative TFP surge allowed the industry in Ontario and British Columbia to move ahead of Illinois and Washington, respectively; however, Quebec trailed further Maine, which is the overall leader in the sample. Our results in this particular case reveal that the Canadian pulp and paper industry did not contribute to the overall Canada-US productivity gap. Key words: total factor productivity, income convergence, pulp and paper industry, Free-Trade Agreement (FTA), productivity puzzle. Nous avons analyse la productivity totale des facteurs (PTF) de l'industrie des pates et papiers dans trois provinces canadiennes (Colombie-Britannique, Ontario et Quebec) et trois etats americains situes immediatement au sud de la frontiere (Washington, Illinois et Maine) pour la periode de 1971 a 2005. Nous avons remarque que l'industrie dans les trois provinces canadiennes avait un taux de croissance de la PTF bien plus elevee pour la periode suivant l'Accord de libre -echange signe en 1988. En ce concerne le niveau de productivite, l'augmentation relative de la PTF a permis a l'industrie de l'Ontario et de la Colombie-Britannique de devancer respectivement l'lllinois et Washington; cependant le Quebec accuse toujours un certain retard sur le Maine qui est le chef de file dans notre echantillon. Dans ce cas particulier, nos resultats revelent que l'industrie canadienne des pates et papiers ne contribue pas a l'ecart global de productivite entre le Canada et les Etats -Unis. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : productivite totale des facteurs, convergence des revenus, industrie des pates et papier, Accord de libre-echange, casse-tete de la productivite., 1. Introduction 'Canada has a serious productivity growth problem. The statistical evidence is unambiguous and of long standing.' (1) Real gross domestic product (GDP) per capita increased at a slightly [...]

Organizers International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) Working Group 8.01.06 (Boreal and Alpine Forest Ecosystem Unit), co-sponsored by Working Groups 7.03.07 (Population Dynamics of Forest Insects) and 7.03.05 (Ecology [...]

Procurement for forest companies with pulp and paper mills aims to ensure that a sufficient volume of wood supply enters the production process. Numerous suppliers and contract types are available; however, their selection is a complex decision for procurement managers. In addition, managers typically dedicate a portion of their wood fiber demand to each group of suppliers, which is referred to as a portfolio strategy. Despite the available literature in contract selection, the consideration of contract types and their characteristics have not been addressed for the complex procurement process. In this study, a mixed-integer optimization model is proposed to best select contracts for pulp and paper procurement. The challenge was to plan deliveries in each time period to satisfy the demand of raw material at the mills. The potential of this model is demonstrated with a case study based on characteristics from a forest company in Quebec, Canada. A comparison between traditional fixed and flexible contracts is presented. Different portfolio strategies are also evaluated for groups of suppliers to investigate potential improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Although stakeholders' participation in forest management helps overcome problems and conflicts that prevent sustainable solutions, different approaches and nomenclature for similar contents in the literature hinder theoretical progress on the topic. This study organises existing information through a bibliometric analysis of scientific papers from the last 30 years (1991–2021) on sustainable forest management, focusing on the stakeholders' participation. Results demonstrate that stakeholders' participation in sustainable forest management gained relevance from 2017 onwards. Case studies are predominant (66%) and six major trends were identified. The first emphasises a systemic approach to participation. The second updates the community management discussion. The third studies historical problems related to the use of resources, rights, and services. The fourth focuses on regional assessments and studies. The fifth concerns assessment, decision-making, and planning, including issues related to certifications and policies. The sixth discusses innovation related to adaptation, climate change, equity, and resilience. The studies included in this last classification are problem-solving-oriented and seek new forest management. Although important, the role of innovation in stakeholders' participation in sustainable forest management is overlooked, which constitutes an avenue for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Procurement for forest companies with pulp and paper mills aims to ensure that a sufficient volume of wood supply enters the production process. Numerous suppliers and contract types are available; however, their selection is a complex decision for procurement managers.In addition, managers typically dedicate a portion of their wood fiber demand to each group of suppliers, which is referred to as a portfolio strategy. Despite the available literature in contract selection, the consideration of contract types and their characteristics have not been addressed for the complex procurement process. In this study, a mixed-integer optimization model is proposed to best select contracts for pulp and paper procurement. The challenge was to plan deliveries in each time period to satisfy the demand of raw material at the mills. The potential of this model is demonstrated with a case study based on characteristics from a forest company in Quebec, Canada. A comparison between traditional fixed and flexible contracts is presented. Different portfolio strategies are also evaluated for groups of suppliers to investigate potential improvements. Key words: contract selection, procurement, mixed-integer programming, pulp and paper, supplier portfolio strategy. Resume : L'approvisionnement des compagnies forestieres qui produisent des pates et papiers vise a garantir qu'un volume suffisant de bois entre dans le processus de production. Plusieurs fournisseurs et types de contrat sont disponibles. Cependant, leur selection est une decision complexe pour les responsables de l'approvisionnement. De plus, les gestionnaires assurent habituellement a chaque groupe de fournisseurs une partie de la demande en bois, pratiquant ainsi une strategie de portefeuille. Malgre la documentation disponible sur la selection de contrat, les types de contrat et leurs caracteristiques ne sont pas pris en compte dans le processus complexe d'approvisionnement. Dans cette etude, un modele d'optimisation mixte en nombres entiers est propose pour mieux selectionner les contrats d'approvisionnement pour les pates et papiers. Le defi consistait a planifier les livraisons a chaque periode afin de satisfaire la demande en matieres premieres des usines. Le potentiel de ce modele est demontre par une etude de cas sur la base des caracteristiques d'une entreprise forestiere au Quebec (Canada). Une comparaison entre les contrats traditionnels fixes et les contrats flexibles est presentee. Differentes strategies de portefeuille sont egalement evaluees pour des groupes de fournisseurs afin d'etudier les ameliorations potentielles. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : selection de contrat, approvisionnement, programmation mixte en nombres entiers, pates et papier, strategie de portefeuille de fournisseurs., Introduction Procurement planning for a pulp and paper company (PPC) includes the selection and management of a set of supplier contracts. Many challenges in the relationship between a PPC and [...]

Remnant populations of Betula papyrifera Marshall have persisted in the Great Plains after the Wisconsin Glaciation along the Niobrara River Valley, Nebraska. Population health has declined in recent years, which has been hypothesized to be due to climate change. We used dendrochronological techniques to assess the response of B.papyrifera to microclimate (1950–2014) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from satellite imagery (Landsat 5 TM (1985–2011) and MODIS (2000–2014)) as a proxy for population health. Growing-season streamflow and precipitation were positively correlated with raw and standardized tree-ring widths and basal area increment increase. Increasing winter and spring temperatures were unfavorable for tree growth, while increasing summer temperatures were favorable in the absence of drought. The strongest predictor for standardized tree rings was the Palmer Drought Severity Index, suggesting that B.papyrifera is highly responsive to a combination of temperature and water availability. The NDVI from the vegetation community was positively correlated with standardized tree-ring growth, indicating the potential of these techniques to be used as a proxy for ex situ monitoring of B.papyrifera. These results aid in forecasting the dynamics of the species in the face of climate variability and change in both remnant populations and across its current distribution in northern latitudes of North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identifies new wood-based products with considerable potential and attractive markets, including textiles, liquid biofuels, platform chemicals, plastics, and packaging. We apply a mixed-methods review to examine how the position of the forest industry in a given value chain determines the respective production value. An assessment is provided as to the degree to which these emerging wood-based products could compensate for the foreseen decline of graphic paper markets in four major forest industry countries: USA, Canada, Sweden, and Finland. A 1%-2% market share in selected global markets implies a potential increase in revenues of 18-75 billion euros per annum in the four selected countries by 2030. This corresponds to 10%-43% of the production value of forest industries in 2016 and compares with a projected decline of graphic paper industry revenue of 5.5 billion euros by 2030. The respective impacts on wood use are manifold, as many of the new products utilize by-products as feedstock. The increase in primary wood use, which is almost entirely attributed to construction and to some extent textiles markets, would be in the range of 15-133 million [m.sup.3], corresponding to 2%-21% of the current industrial round-wood use in the selected countries.Key words: bioeconomy, competitiveness, forest industry, new wood-based products, value chain.Cette etude identifie de nouveaux produits a base de bois ayant un grand potentiel de developpement ainsi que des marches attrayants, tels que les textiles, les biocarburants liquides, les produits chimiques porteurs, les plastiques et les emballages. Nous avons utilise une revue des methodes mixtes pour analyser comment la position de l'industrie forestiere dans une chaine de valeur donnee determine la production de valeur pour les produits selectionnes. On presente une evaluation des chances que ces nouveaux produits puissent compenser le declin envisage dans le marche du papier graphique dans quatre principaux pays producteurs de bois: les Etats-Unis, le Canada, la Suede et la Finlande. Une augmentation de 1 a 2 % des parts de marche dans des secteurs precis represente un gain potentiel de revenus de 18 a 75 milliards d'euros par annee d'ici 2030, et ce pour les quatre pays. Cela represente 10 a 43 % de la valeur de la production des industries forestieres en 2016 comparativement a une diminution projetee des revenus de 5,5 milliards d'euros pour l'industrie du papier graphique d'ici 2030. Les impacts respectifs sur l'utilisation du bois sont nombreux, puisque plusieurs de ces nouveaux produits utilisent des sous- produits du bois comme matiere premiere. L'augmentation de l'utilisation primaire du bois, qui est presque entierement attribuable a la construction et jusqu'a un certain point aux marches du textile, representerait 15 a 133 milliards [m.sup.3], ce qui represente 2 a 21 % de l'utilisation actuelle du bois pour la transformation industrielle dans les pays selectionnes. [Traduit par la Redaction]Mots-cles: bioeconomie, competitivite, industrie forestiere, nouveaux produits du bois, chaine de valeur., 1. IntroductionThe 17 global sustainable development goals (United Nations (UN) 2015a) and the Paris climate agreement (UN 2015b) set internationally recognized goals that require transforming towards more sustainable business practices. [...]

Tree detection and canopy area measurement are important and difficult tasks in forest inventory, which are important for understanding forest stand structure. This study utilized remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) aerial photography technology to collect remote sensing images of forests in Xiong County, China, creating a dataset comprising 1200 images of six tree species. Based on this dataset, the paper proposes an optimized model, Att-Mask R-CNN, for canopy detection and segmentation. Att-Mask R-CNN outperforms the original models (Mask R-CNN and MS R-CNN) by achieving 65.29% mean average precision for detection, 80.44% mean intersection over union for segmentation, and 90.67% overall recognition rate for the six tree species. In addition, a pixel statistics method based on segmentation masks is introduced for estimating the vertical projected area of individual tree crowns, and comparisons between the measured and predicted vertical projected area of the crowns of six tree species (100 trees of each class) show an overall goodness-of-fit R2 of 85% and a relative root-mean-square error rRMSE of 12.81%. By using remote sensing images from RPAs and optimizing existing deep learning models, the detection and segmentation of individual tree canopies can be achieved, resulting in a more accurate understanding of forest structure, which provides scientific support for forest management and resource monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports research papers presented at the International Symposium on Society and Resource Management Conference, June 2017; and the International Union of Forest Research Organizations Conference, June 2017, related to indigenous peoples and collaborative forest governance.

Precommercial thinning could be a valuable tool for climate change adaptation, as it can promote stand diversity while increasing productivity. Softwood and hardwood stands are usually thinned following different methods, and we lack recommendations for application in mixedwood stands. We evaluated the effects of precommercial thinning on the growth and composition of balsam fir (Abies balsameaL.)–birch stands dominated by paper and yellow birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh. and Betula alleghaniensis Britt.), comparing methods and production objectives (systematic release-softwood, systematic release-mixedwood, crop-tree release-mixedwood, and crop-tree release-hardwood) in Québec (Canada). Precommercial thinning increased tree-level and stand-level growth, especially for both birches. Compared to the non-thinned control, thinning increased tree diameter at breast height annual increments by 60%–107%, with similar results among modalities. Thinning changed initial stand composition, but mixedwood production plots composition was similar to that of the control 15 years after treatment. Promoting diversity is often perceived to be made at the expense of wood production. Our results suggest that we can obtain both increased growth and maintain diversity. Precommercial thinning is currently suggested as an adaptation tool that can foster drought resistance. Based on our study, we suggest it could serve another purpose in climate-adapted forest management, that is, maintaining diversity and thus increasing resilience to disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article refers to the papers selected in 16th International Boreal Forest Research Association Conference on boreal forests that was held in Edmonton, Alberta, from October 8?10, 2013 along with a list of guest editors including Philip Comeau, Susan Conard and Werner Kurz.

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Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper reviews and discusses the main features of biological invasion by plants and the assisted migration theory referencing a critical common factor—belowground ecology. The risk of a plant becoming invasive and the potential failure of assisted migration programs depend on the presence or absence of soil microorganisms that regulate key ecosystem processes and mitigate adverse environmental conditions. This biotic interaction should be considered in the selection of sites for afforestation programs since it is as important as temperature and precipitation regarding conservation decisions, and assisted migration practices in response to climate change. Fungal species should be determined and included in climate change mitigation programs to avoid disease outbreaks and ensure the presence of beneficial mutualistic species in sites selected for assisted migration. Plants considered for assisted migration should pose a low risk of becoming invasive for having establishment difficulties per se. However, the real threat is that they may displace other species, introduce pathogens, or trigger disease outbreaks in introduction sites that nullify assisted migration efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an increasing interest in mixed conifer-broadleaf stands as a way to increase the diversity and productivity of managed forests. This study examined the impacts of varying densities of planted broadleaf trees on conifer performance, total stand productivity, and understory plant cover 20 years after stand establishment. The study took place in the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest in Maple Ridge, British Columbia. It used a randomized complete block design to compare treatments containing low, moderate, or high broadleaf densities added to a constant conifer density. Each block contained a conifer-only plot as a control. Conifers were composed of equal amounts of western hemlock, western redcedar, and Douglas-fir. Broadleaves were composed of either red alder or paper birch. We found that conifer volume was significantly lower in most broadleaf treatments relative to the control, due to lower hemlock and redcedar volumes. Douglas-fir, on the other hand, had a higher volume—albeit not significant—in the broadleaf treatments. There were no significant differences in total stand volume between any of the treatments and the control. Shrub cover was significantly higher in the low and high alder treatments relative to the control, but there were no differences in shrub cover between birch treatments and the control. The results suggest that low alder density provides a good balance of conifer yield and understory development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest biomass harvest has the potential to provide feedstocks for energy production to offset fossil fuel consumption. However, concerns have been raised regarding the ecological sustainability of removing additional biomass from forests, in particular the impacts on biodiversity. In this paper, we used a suite of ground-dwelling arthropod taxa (ground beetles, spiders, and rove beetles) to measure community compositional changes along a gradient of biomass removal treatments 7 years postharvest, and compared against reference. Based on multivariate regression trees, changes in species composition reflected the intensity gradient of the biomass removal treatments or stand attributes associated with the level of forest floor disturbance across all arthropod groups. For each arthropod group, changes in composition were defined primarily by reductions or loss of abundant forest associated species and increases in the number and abundance of species associated with more xeric conditions and increased disturbance intensity. There were no differences between full-tree and tree-length treatments. Overall, results indicated a strong arthropod response to the removal of overstory, forest floor disturbance, and reductions in understory cover mostly resulting from the glyphosate applications. Arthropod recovery would benefit from overstory retention, reduction in forest floor disturbance, and judicious use of glyphosate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Planted forests are in the utilisation phase in Japan, contributing to the increased use of timber and the realisation of carbon neutrality. We simulated and compared the carbon emission reduction effects of three forest management scenarios, including a no final cutting scenario at two geographical scales, in the context of a privately owned Cryptomeria japonica planted forest in Tsuruoka City, Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. We adopted two substitution approaches: the status quo approach and the dynamic approach in line with Japan's nationally determined contribution. We used hypothetical stands over three rotation periods of 150 years at the stand level, and a harvest schedule of 120 years at the regional level. The harvesting scenarios based on the status quo substitution approach reduced carbon emissions more than the no final cutting scenario for current wood usage at the study site, although those based on the dynamic substitution approach reduced carbon emissions as much as the no final cutting scenario during the first 30 years. Sustainable timber production from forests may reduce carbon emissions as much as unharvested forests until 2050, indicating that the substitution effects of harvested wood products could have a significant impact on the climate change mitigation effect arising from timber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest products trade has a critical role to play in both global economic development and environmental protection. Based on the trade data of global forest products, raw forest products, and processed forest products from 2000 to 2020, this paper constructed a trade network and analyzed its pattern by using indicators such as density, average distance, out-strength, and in-strength. The results show that from 2000 to 2020, the global trade network of forest products has been increasingly connected. Compared with the trade of raw material forest products, the trade network of processed forest products is more closely connected and its transport efficiency is higher. Countries with high GDP such as USA, China, and Germany are leading trading countries in forest products. Countries with abundant forest resources are the major exporters of raw forest products, while labor- and capital-abundant countries are major exporters of processed forest products. Countries with abundant labor and capital and high GDP are the main importers of raw forest products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)