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Three well-known attempts to build a typology of peasant movements in Latin America in the twentieth century are Aníbal Quijano, ‘Contemporary peasant movements’, in Seymour Lipset and Aldo Solari (eds.), Elites in Latin America (New York, 1967); Henry A. Landsberger, ‘The role of peasant movements and revolts in development’, in H. A. Landsberger (ed.), Latin American Peasant Movements (Ithaca, N.Y., and London, 1969), and Gerrit Huizer, El potencial revolucionario del campesinado (Mexico, D.F., 1973). Other useful collections of articles on rural unrest are Rodolfo Stavenhagen (ed.), Agrarian Problems and Peasant Movements in Latin America (New York, 1970); Ernest Feder (ed.), La lucha de clases en el campo: Análisis estructural de la economía latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1975), and Henri Favre (ed.), ‘Les mouvements indiens paysans aux XVIIIe, XIXe et XXe siècles’, Actes du XLIIe Congrès International des Américanistes (Paris, 1976). But the most complete and up-to-date collective work, including chapters on every Latin American country, is Pablo González Casanova (ed.), Historia política de los campesinos latinoamericanos, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1984–85). An illuminating synthesis is Henri Favre, ‘L'Etat et la paysannerie en Mésoamérique et dans les Andes’, Etudes Rurales, 81–2 (1981), 25–55. In a more abstract vein, a model for the changing nature of the rural social order and the increasing diversification of rural actors is provided by Eric R. Wolf, ‘Fases de la protesta rural en América Latina’, in Feder (ed.), La lucha de clases en el campo. On the significance of caudillos and caciques, see the pioneering essays by Eric R. Wolf, ‘Aspects of group relations in a complex society: Mexico’, American Anthropologist, 58 (1956), 1065–78, and François Chevalier, ‘ “Caudillos” et “caciques” en Amérique: Contribution a l'etude des liens personnels’, Mélanges offerts a Marcel Bataillon par les hispanistes français, Bulletin Hispanique, 51 (1962). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on post-1959 Cuba has been handicapped because scholars in the country have concentrated on the years before 1959 and because field research in Cuba by outsiders on the post-1959 period has been rare and difficult. The secondary literature relies heavily on three types of sources: research on publications issued by the Cuban government, impressions of scholarly and other visitors to Cuba based on varying levels of systematic observation and research, and research on Cuban exiles. The last of these, however, focusses mostly on the exiles' integration into the United States rather than on generating systematic information about Cuba itself. The main scholarly journal for the study of contemporary Cuba is Cuban Studies, edited from 1970 to 1990 by Carmelo Mesa-Lago at the Center for Latin American Studies, University of Pittsburgh. Published twice a year until 1985, and once a year thereafter, it features scholarly articles principally, though not exclusively, by social scientists on post-1959 Cuba. Each issue also carries the best and most complete bibliography of research on Cuba, conducted in or outside Cuba, in all fields. See also Ronald H. Chilcote and Cheryl Lutjens (eds.), Cuba: 1953–1978: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature, 2 vols. (White Plains, N.Y., 1986), and Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba: An Annotated Bibliography (Westport, Conn., 1988). For bibliography on the years before 1970, see Nelson P. Valdés and Edwin Lieuwen, The Cuban Revolution: A Research-Study Guide (1959–1969) (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1971). The best cartographic work is the joint publication by the Academia de Ciencias de Cuba and the Academia de Ciencias de la URSS, Atlas nacional de Cuba (Havana, 1970). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until fifty years ago publications on Protestantism in Latin America consisted mainly of the writings and memoirs of missionaries, reporting and interpreting their work, frequently with a promotional or apologetic purpose. The reports of the early Pan American Missionary Conferences (Panama, 1916; Montevideo, 1925; and Havana, 1929) and surveys and statistics provided by World Dominion Press, the Committee on Cooperation in Latin America (CCLA) and the International Missionary Council provide some data on the beginnings of Protestant missions. Finally, the denominational journals in different countries should also be mentioned. There are practically no significant collections of sources for the history of Latin American Protestantism. The sections on Protestantism in Comisión de Estudios de Historia de la Iglesia en América Latina (CEHILA), Para una historia de la evangelización en América Latina (Barcelona, 1977), 165–269, Materiales para una historia de la teología en América Latina (San José, C.R., 1981), 343–88, and Rakes de la teología latinoamericana (San José, C.R. 1985), 241–60, offer some information on sources. See also H. Mackenzie Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewitness History of Christianity in Latin America (Maryknoll, NY, 1989). The most recent and reliable statistical survey is David Barrett (ed.), World Christian Encyclopedia (New York, 1982). General bibliographies on Protestantism in Latin America, although not specializing in historiographical material, can be profitably consulted. The most complete (up to 1975) is John Sinclair, Protestantism in Latin America: A Bibliographical Guide, 2nd ed. (Pasadena, Calif, 1976). The general histories of Damboriena, H.-J. Prien and J.-P. Bastian (see below) include valuable bibliographies, as do the books by David Stoll and David Martin (also see below). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Valuable chapters on Cuba treating the period from the machadato to the Revolution can be found in the following general studies: Hugh Thomas, Cuba or The Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971); Jaime Suchlicki, Cuba: From Columbus to Castro, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C., 1990); Jorge Domínguez, Cuba: Order and Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Louis A. Peréz, Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (New York, 1988); and Ramón E. Ruiz, Cuba: The Making of a Revolution (Amherst, Mass., 1968). Among the better general historical surveys published in Cuba are Oscar Pino Santos, Historia de Cuba: Aspectos fundamentals (Havana, 1964); Julio E. Le Riverend, Historia de Cuba (Havana, 1973), and Ministerio de Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias, Historia militar de Cuba (Havana, n.d.). A complete history of Cuba is contained in the ten-volume collaborative work supervised by Ramiro Guerra y Sánchez, Historia de la nación cubana (Havana, 1952). Also of some use is the three-volume work by Emeterio S. Santovenia and Raúl M. Shelton, Cuba y su historia, 3rd ed. (Miami, 1966) and the five-volume study by José Duarte Oropesa, Historiología cubana (n.p., 1969–70), as well as Calixto C. Masó, Historia de Cuba (Miami, 1976) and Carlos Márquez Sterling, Historia de Cuba, desde Colón hasta Castro (New York, 1963). The two-volume anthology published under the auspices of the Grupo de Estudios Cubanos of the University of Havana, La república neocolonial (Havana, 1975–79), deals expertly with a variety of topics including labour, economic history, the armed forces, and the ABC revolutionary society. Another useful anthology dealing with the pre-revolutionary period is the reprinted edition of Robert Freeman Smith (ed.), Background to Revolution (Huntington, N.Y., 1979). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General works dealing with Haiti in the period from 1930 to the present include Patrick Bellegarde Smith, Haiti: The Breached Citadel (Boulder, Colo., 1990); see also his intellectual biography of the Haitian politician Dantès Bellegarde, In the Shadow of Powers (Atlantic Heights, N.J., 1985). These works, however, present a rather superficial view of the country's history. The last four chapters of David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti (Cambridge, 1979; 2nd ed., London 1989), are concerned with recent social and political thought. Most of Lyonel Paquin, The Haitians: Class and Color in Politics (New York, 1983) concerns the period from 1930 onwards. Popular, somewhat journalistic, accounts of the Haitian past include Robert Rotberg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston, 1971). Robert Debs Heinl, who was in charge of the U.S. Marine mission to Haiti in the early years of the Duvalier regime, has produced, with Nancy Heinl, a highly ethnocentric and anecdotal history of Haiti entitled Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People (Boston, 1978). The second volume of Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haiti (1804–1987) (Montreal, 1990) deals with developments in this period. For bibliographical works on Haiti, see essay VI: 16. Ray ford Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London, 1968) is a useful volume and best on relations of Haiti with the United States. Other works concentrating on Haiti's foreign relations include L. F. Manigat, Haiti of the Sixties: Object of International Concern (Washington D.C., 1964) and Robert Tomasek, ‘The Haitian-Dominican Republic controversy of 1963 and the Organisation of American States’, Orbis, 12 (1968). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few academic studies of the changes which have taken place in the Dominican Republic during the last sixty years, and these generally devote more attention to the political process than to the evolution of economy and society. On the antecedents and origins of the Trujillo era there are two important political histories: Luis Felipe Mejía, De Lílís a Trujillo: Historia contemporánea de la República Dominicana (Caracas, 1944), and Víctor Medina Benet, Los responsables (Santo Domingo, 1976). Both excellent monographs are based partially on the documented memoirs of the authors, who were witnesses to the fall of President Horacio Vásquez and were present when Trujillo conspired to seize power and establish his dictatorship. The outstanding book on the Trujillo regime is Jesús de Galíndez, La era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de una dictadura hispanoamerkana (Santiago, Chile, 1956), which began as a doctoral dissertation at Columbia University and is full of accurate documentation, mostly official publications and newspapers. More revealing of the intimate life of the regime is Gregorio Bustamante, Una satrapía en el Caribe (Mexico, D.F., 1950). Bustamante is the pseudonym of José Almoina, who had earlier been Trujillo's secretary. Both Galíndez and Almoina were Spanish exiles from the Civil War, and both were assassinated on Trujillo's orders for having written these books. A useful text on the mechanisms used by the dictator to build his economic empire is German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958). Also interesting for its psychological interpretation of the dictator is Juan Bosch, Trujillo: Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo (Caracas, 1959). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pioneering general interpretation of Costa Rica that considers the country's development from a variety of perspectives is Samuel Stone, La dinastía de los conquistadores (San José, C.R., 1975); Eng. trans., The Heritage of the Conquistadores: Ruling Classes in Central America from the Conquest to the Sandinistas (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990). The same broad approach is also adopted in the excellent studies written by Carolyn Hall: El café y el desarrollo histórico-geográfuo de Costa Rica (San José, C. R., 1976) and Costa Rica: Una interpretación geográfica con perspectiva histórica (San José, C.R., 1984). Other general interpretative surveys include José L. Vega, Orden y progreso: La formación del estado national en Costa Rica (San José, C.R., 1975), Poder politico y democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1982), and Hacia una interpretación del desarrollo costarricense: Ensayo sociológico (San José, C.R., 1983); Carlos Meléndez's more dated Costa Rica: Evolución de sus problemas más destacados (San José, C.R., 1953); Wilburg Jiménez, Génesis del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821–1981 (San José, C.R., 1986), which concentrates upon administrative issues; and Chester Zelaya (ed.), Costa Rica contemporánea (San José, C.R., 1979), a collection of provocative essays by, among others, Carlos Meléndez, Oscar Arias, Gonzalo Facio and Eduardo Lizano. The perspective of the Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN) is reflected in Carlos Monge, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, C.R., 1962); Eugenio Rodríguez, Apuntes para una sociología costarricense (San José, C.R., 1953); and Hugo Navarro, La generatión del 48: Juicio histórico sobre la democracia costarricense (Mexico, D.F., 1957). For a rigorously Marxist interpretation, see Reinaldo Carcanholo, Desarrollo del capitalismo en Costa Rica (San José, C.R., 1981). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the available works of reference, one of the most useful is Wayne Bray, The Controversy Over a New Canal Treaty between the United States and Panama: A Selective Annotated Bibliography of United States, Panamanian, Colombian, French, and International Organization Sources (Washington, D.C., 1976). From the Panamanian side, see Nydia Cardozo and Consuelo Tempone, Guía para investigadores de Panamá (Panama City, 1978); and from the Canal Zone, see Subject Catalog of the Special Panama Collection of the Canal Zone Library-Museum (Boston, 1964). The most comprehensive collection of documentary material is Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Background Documents Relating to the Panama Canal (Washington, D.C., 1977). An indispensable primary source is the printed State Department material, successively entitled Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers and Foreign Relations of the United States. For a Zone perspective, see the annual reports of the chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission for the years 1904 to 1914, of the governor of the Panama Canal for the years 1914 to 1951, and of the president of the Panama Canal Company for the years 1951 to 1979 (Washington, D.C., 1904–79). Bringing the Zone graphically to life in the period 1904–39 is the Panama Canal Photograph Collection, held in Record Group 185 in the U.S. National Archives, Washington, D.C., while note should also be taken of two excellent documentary films: Frederick Wiseman's ‘Canal Zone’ (1977) and Carl Charlson's ‘A man, a plan, a canal: Panama’ (1987). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most complete annotated bibliography of Panama appears in Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro, Celestino Andrés Araúz, and Armando Muñoz Pinzón (eds.), La historia de Panamá en sus textos (Panama City, 1980), vol. 2, 331–448, the last third of which deals with the twentieth century. Briefer but useful are Eleanor Langstaff, Panama (Santa Barbara, Calif, 1982) and Basil C. and Anne K. Hedrick (eds.), Historical Dictionary of Panama (Metuchen, N.J., 1970). A recent reliable survey is Sandra W. Meditz and Dennis M. Hanratty (eds.), Panama: A Country Study (Washington, D.C., 1989), especially Jan Knippers Black's historical chapter. Several journals carry articles and documents dealing with Panama's history since independence. The Boletín de la Academia Panameña de la Historia (1933–) concentrates on the colonial period and the nineteenth century but sometimes dedicates an issue to a national period figure or event. Revista Lotería (1941–), published by the government, devotes much attention to recent history, culture and documentation. Tareas (1960–), founded by Panama's leading socialist writer, Ricaurte Soler, carries articles by leftist writers and publishes occasional papers as well. Cultural and social themes, often treated historically, predominate in the Revista National de Cultura. The birth of the republic in 1903 is covered in most of the histories of the Panama Canal (see essay VII: 25). Among the most authoritative are Eduardo Lemaitre, Panamá y su separateón de Colombia (Bogotá, 1972), David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas (New York, 1977), and James M. Skinner, France and Panama: The Unknown Years, 1894–1908 (New York, 1988). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social and economic backwardness of Honduras in the period since 1930 is reflected in the shortage of good general works and specialized monographs. Only in the 1980s, as Honduras became a focus of international attention, did the situation begin to change, although few works on Honduras in this recent period can be regarded as scholarly. One of the more satisfactory general studies of Honduras is Mario Posas and Rafael Del Cid, La constructión del sector público y del estado national en Honduras 1870–1979 (Tegucigalpa, 1981), which is broader in coverage than its title implies and particularly strong in its interpretation of the period up to 1972. The standard text on Honduras in English is William S. Stokes, Honduras: An Area Study of Government (Madison, Wis., 1950), a remarkably detailed picture of Honduras up to the close of the Cariato, but weak on economics. James Morris, Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers (Boulder, Colo., 1984), tries to pick up the story where Stokes left it, but lacks Stokes's insights and is rather descriptive. As a solid introduction to Honduras, although very heavy on factual information, Howard Blutstein et al., Area Handbook for Honduras (Washington, D.C., 1970) still has value. A good general study, with a useful collection of appendices containing key documents in Honduran history, is Antonio Murga Frassinetti, Enclave y sociedad en Honduras, 2nd ed. (Tegucigalpa, 1985). There is also an excellent study of northern Honduras by Dario Euraque, ‘Merchants and industrialists in Northern Honduras: The making of national bourgeoisie in peripheral capitalism, 1870s–1972’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1990). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nicaraguan historiography is extremely uneven in both quality and quantity. While much of the country's history remains poorly researched, certain events have attracted enormous attention, notably the proposed inter-oceanic canal in the nineteenth century; the U.S. occupation in the first third of the twentieth century; the Sandino episode; and, more recently, the Sandinista revolution. The international attention devoted to Nicaragua since the collapse of the Somoza dynasty in 1979 has created a demand for comprehensive bibliographies, previously a neglected area. The most impressive is the three-volume Nicaraguan National Bibliography, 1800–1978, produced by the Latin American Bibliographic Foundation (Redlands, Calif, 1986–7), with more than 20, 000 entries. A more modest, but useful, bibliography is Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Nicaragua (Oxford 1983), in the World Bibliographical Series. For the post-1979 period, there is such a rapid increase in publications every year that any bibliography runs the risk of being out-of-date as soon as it is published. Hans Aalborg, however, has compiled a helpful work for the first five years of the revolution: The Nicaraguan Development Process (Copenhagen, 1984), while a comprehensive bibliography on political economy covering most of the period of Sandinista rule (1979–90) is contained in CRIES, La politica económica en Nicaragua 1979–88 (Managua, 1989). The Nicaraguan revolution inspired a number of authors to attempt general works on the country's history. Among the best are Alberto Lanuza, Juan Luis Vázquez, Amaru Barahona and Amalia Chamorro, Economía y sociedad en la construcciín del estado en Nicaragua (San José, C. R., 1983); David Close, Nicaragua: Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1988) and F. Lainez, Nicaragua: Colonialismo espanol, yanki y ruso (Guatemala City, 1987). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few political institutions or social groups in Latin America have attracted as much sustained scholarly interest as the military. The corpus of academic literature consists mainly of studies of institutional, behavioural and cultural aspects of the armed forces as political actors. To a lesser extent, the corpus also contains institutional military histories as well as sociological studies of the military organizations as social groups. The focus of this bibliographical essay is primarily on academic literature dealing with the domestic political role of Latin American military establishments. Conventional military histories that deal with the military institutions exclusively in their military personae - the Chaco War, the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, and, more significantly, the Falklands/Malvinas War - are not included. Also excluded are the institutional histories and biographies officially sanctioned by the various military establishments themselves. Official military publications and in-house journals comprise a corpus of literature quite distinct from academic studies. For a superb academic analysis of the official corpus of military literature in Latin America and elsewhere, see Frederick M. Nunn, The Time of the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective (Lincoln, Nebr., 1992). This exclusion, however, does not cover books written by military personnel in their individual capacity, such as academic works and autobiographies. Latin America The decade of the 1960s was a time of pioneering academic work in the new multi-disciplinary field of Area Studies. These years also represented the zenith of the ‘behavioural revolution’ then underway in the discipline of political science in North American academe, with its emphasis on analytical studies that were empirical, quantitative, comparative and inter-disciplinary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is no scarcity of documentary sources on women in twentieth-century Latin America, and there are several recent important bibliographical sources in English. An indispensable introduction is K. Lynn Stoner (ed.), Latinas of the Americas: A Source Book (New York, 1989), which includes Georgette Dorn, ‘Bibliographies: Bibliography’. Meri Knaster (ed.), Women in Spanish America: An Annotated Bibliography (Boston, 1977) remains an useful source for works published before 1975; it was the first serious effort to collect an interdisciplinary and chronologically comprehensive bibliography on subjects related to women. Stoner's bibliography covers publications between 1975 and 1987 and contains important bibliographical essays by well-known scholars, assessing the state of the art in several fields. Shorter historiographical essays published after Knaster's work provide useful surveys of the state of research. See Asunción Lavrin, ‘Some final considerations on trends and issues in Latin American women's history’, in Asunción Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1978), 302–32; Marysa Navarro, ‘Research on Latin American Women, ’ Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 1/5 (1979), 111–20; June Hahner, ‘Recent research on women in Brazil, ’ LARR, 20/3 (1985), 163–79; K. Lynn Stoner, ‘Directions in Latin American women's history, 1977–1985’, LARR, 22/2 (1987), 101–34; and Asunción Lavrin, ‘Women, the family and social change, ’ World Affairs, 150/2 (1987), 109–28, ‘La mujer en México: Veinte anos de estudio, 1968–1988: Ensayo historiografico’, in Simposio de Historiografía Americanista (Mexico, D.F., 1990), 545–93, and ‘Women's studies’, in Paula H. Covington (ed.), Latin America and the Caribbean: A Critical Guide to Research Sources (New York, 1992), 743–54 (complemented by a bibliography compiled by Aimee Algier-Baxter, 755–88). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a significant increase in the number of studies – largely of a secondary character – since 1980, the scholarly literature on El Salvador in the twentieth century remains thin. Although they were written before the political developments that prompted the ‘new wave’ of books, two English-language texts remain indispensable as general surveys: David Browning, El Salvador: Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971), which adopts a predominantly geographical approach to socio-economic development, and Alastair White, El Salvador (London, 1973), which devotes more space to history and politics. Mario Flores Macal, Origen, desarrollo y crisis de las formas de dominatión en El Salvador (San José, C.R., 1983), and Rafael Guidos Vejar, Ascenso del militarismo en El Salvador (San José, C.R., 1982) provide general overviews of political history, while the work of Rafael Menjívar links politics more closely to developments in political economy: see Crisis del desarrollismo: Caso El Salvador (San José, C.R., 1977); El Salvador: El eslabón más pequeno (San José, C.R., 1981); and Formation y lucha del proletariado (San José, C.R., 1982). Menjívar also contributes a chapter to Centroamérica hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1976), an important collection of comparative essays that situates the country within a regional framework. W. H. Durham, Scarcity and Survival in Central America: Ecological Origins of the Soccer Wars (Stanford, Calif, 1979) also takes a comparative approach, contrasting the rural subsistence economy of the country with that in Honduras, a counterpoint being given by Eduardo Colindres, Fundamentos económicos de la burguesía salvadorena (San José, C.R., 1977), which was the basis for the author's many articles on the landlord class and direction of the modern coffee and cotton sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is abundant literature on Central America since 1930. See Edelberto Torres Rivas and Maria Eugenia Gallardo, Para entender Centroamérica: Resumen bibliográfico (San José, C.R., 1985), and Kenneth Grieb, Central America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: An Annotated Bibliography (Boston, 1988). An analysis of what has been written in the last twenty-five years, however, reveals that 80 percent of all Spanish texts about Central America in general or any of the countries in particular have been written since 1979. Similarly, what has been written in English consists, in essence, of a literature of ‘the crisis’. Nevertheless, both before and after 1979, important works were published which are fundamental to an understanding of Central American history. There are few works which treat the Central American region as a whole and which at the same time respect national features and local peculiarities. Franklin Parker, The Central American Republics (London, 1964), contains an analysis of and useful information about the economy, society and institutions of each country, covering the period up to 1960. More comprehensive and underlining regional homogeneity is Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New York, 1985), which also contains an exhaustive ‘Selective Guide to the Literature on Central America.’ The two-volume text by Mario Monteforte Toledo, Centra América: Subdesarrollo y dependencia (Mexico, D.F., 1972) is important for the quantitative information it contains. Also important because they contain interpretive propositions for the entire region are Edelberto Torres-Rivas, Interpretación del desarrollo social centroamericano (San José, C.R., 1971), one of the first works to treat the region as a whole; and Héctor Pérez Brignoli, Breve historia de Centroamérica (Madrid, 1986). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its age and limited attention to historical developments, Richard N. Adams, Crucifixion by Power: Essays on Guatemalan Social Structure, 1944–1966 (Austin, Tex., 1970) continues to occupy a central place in the literature on Guatemala in the twentieth century. A more recent narrative account of republican history is Jim Handy, Gift of the Devil: A History of Guatemala (Toronto, 1984), popular in style but with a full scholarly apparatus. The period up to the mid-1930s is covered in the engaging study by Chester Lloyd Jones, Guatemala Past and Present (Minneapolis, Minn., 1940). Providing full statistical material supported by a rather uneven text on the following two decades is Mario Monteforte Toledo, Guatemala: Monografía sociológica (Mexico, D.F., 1959), while Carlos Guzmán-Böckler and Jean-Loup Herbert, Guatemala: Una interpretación histórico-social (Mexico, D.F., 1970) is overwhelmingly analytical in perspective. Alfonso Bauer Paiz, Como opera el capital yanqui en Centroamérica: El caso de Guatemala (Mexico, D.F., 1956), and Thomas and Marjorie Melville, Guatemala: The Politics of Land Ownership (New York, 1971), are both polemical in style and secondary studies but do give cogent overviews of two important factors in twentieth-century society and economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is not yet an extensive historiographical literature on Mexico in the period after 1946 because of both its proximity to the present day and the absence of epic events. Nor is there a longstanding tradition of political or public memoirs, though that may be in an incipient phase. For a general overview, see Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History, now in its fourth edition (New York, 1991). Interpretive studies of Mexican politics include Daniel Levy and Gabriel Székely, Mexico: Paradoxes of Stability and Change (Boulder, Colo., 1983; revised ed., 1987); Roberto Newell and Luis Rubio, Mexico's Dilemma: The Political Origins of Economic Crisis (Boulder, Colo., 1984); and Roderic A. Camp (ed.), Mexico's Political Stability: The Next Five Years (Boulder, Colo., 1986). Alan Riding's journalistic account, Distant Neighbors: A Portrait of the Mexicans (New York, 1985), is informative but highly controversial. Earlier analyses include José Luis Reyna and Richard S. Weinert (eds.), Authoritarianism in Mexico (Philadelphia, 1977), and Miguel Basáñez, La lucha por la hegemonía en Mexico, 1968–1980 (México, D.F., 1981). Standard works on the political system by North Americans include Robert E. Scott, Mexican Government in Transition (Urbana, Ill., 1958; 2nd ed., 1964); Frank R. Brandenburg, The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964); L. Vincent Padgett, The Mexican Political System (Boston, 1966; rev. ed., 1976); Kenneth F. Johnson, Mexican Democracy: A Critical View (Boston, 1971; 3rd rev. ed., 1984); Nora Hamilton, The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1982); Judith Hellman, Mexico in Crisis (New York, 1983); and John J. Bailey, Governing Mexico: The Statecraft of Crisis Management (New York, 1988). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on labour movements and the working class in Latin America in the period since 1930 is most abundant for Brazil and Mexico, followed by Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Peru. There is a limited literature on the remaining countries. Works dealing specifically with occupational structure, and with the political parties of the Left, have been omitted; they are covered in other bibliographic essays in this volume. Works dealing with labour law have also been omitted, unless these have a specific historical or substantive focus. There are a number of general surveys of the field. Of these, perhaps the most interesting (though also highly debated) are R. B. Collier and D. Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, N.J., 1991), and C. Bergquist, Labor in Latin America (Stanford, Calif, 1986). The former is a massive interpretative effort of the political incorporation of labour and its effects on political development in eight countries: Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Mexico. The latter, employing an interpretative scheme drawn from dependency and labour process theories, compares Chile, Argentina, Venezuela and Colombia. An earlier work which is still a useful and reliable introduction is Hobart Spalding, Jr., Organized Labor in Latin America (New York, 1977). See also Moisés Poblete Troncoso and Ben Burnett, The Rise of the Latin American Labor Movement (New York, 1960); R. J. Alexander, Labor Relations in Argentina, Brazil and Chile (New York, 1962); Victor Alba, Politics and the Labor Movement in Latin America (Stanford, Calif., 1968); Carlos Rama, Historia del movimiento obrero y social latinoamericano contemporáneo (Barcelona, 1976); and Moisés Poblete Troncoso, El movimiento obrero latinoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1976). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The best guide to Mexican history in the period is provided by the multivolume, multi-authored Historia de la Revolutión Mexicana, published by the Colegio de México, ten volumes of which cover the period 1928–1952. The first two, Lorenzo Meyer, Rafael Segovia and Alejandra Lajous, Los inicios de la institutionalizatión (Mexico, D.F., 1978) and El conflicto social y los gobiernos del maximato (Mexico, D.F., 1978) deal respectively with the political and social history of the Calles Maximato. Four successive volumes cover the Cárdenas presidency: Luis González, Los artífices del cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1979), sets the scene; the same author's Los días del presidente Cardenas (Mexico, D.F., 1979) deftly captures both the key events and the president's character; Alicia Hernández Chávez, La mecánica cardenista (Mexico, D.F., 1979) offers acute analysis and original research; and Victoria Lerner, La educatión socialista (Mexico, D.F., 1979) deals with education policy in the 1930s. Historical research on the 1940s – a crucial but relatively little-studied decade – has been pioneered by Luis Medina, Del cardenismo al avilacamachismo (Mexico, D.F., 1978); Bianca Torres Ramírez, Mexico en la segunda guerra mundial (Mexico, D.F., 1979); Luis Medina, Civilismo y modernizatión del autoritarismo (Mexico, D.F., 1979); and Bianca Torres Ramírez, Hacia la Utopía industrial (Mexico, D.F., 1984). Rafael Loyola (coord.), Entre la guerra y la estabilidad política: El México de los 40 (Mexico, D.F., 1986) is a valuable collection of articles dealing with domestic politics, international relations, the economy and culture during the war. Stephen R. Niblo, The Impact of War: Mexico and World War Two (La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, Occasional Paper, Melbourne, 1988) is a succinct, original study, especially of the socio–economic impact of the war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historiography and social science literature on the Catholic church in Latin America since 1930 is large and unsatisfactory. There are two main reasons why it is unsatisfactory. First, most ecclesiastical archives, especially that of the Vatican, remain closed to scholars for this period. Secondly, most of the publications on the subject since the late 1960s have been written from the partisan perspectives of the Catholic Left and Catholic Right. From these have emerged two orthodoxies: the one perceiving the diffusion of a ‘theology of liberation’ as a radical break with five gloomy centuries of overidentification of the Roman Catholic church in Latin America with encrusted and oppressive power structures; the other, with equal rigidity, seeing the changes of the 1960s and 1970s as posing a grotesque challenge from within to the creative traditions of five centuries of self-abnegating missionary activity. Both of these orthodoxies are highly critical in tone; neither is self-critical in spirit. Few attempts have been made to examine the cumulative significance of the sequence of small changes in the church between 1930 and the early 1960s. No serious attempt has been made to challenge the assumption that a major transformation occurred in the church in the 1960s and 1970s, or, if it occurred, to identify and quantify in how many parishes and among how many Catholics it had a profound impact. A number of general histories of the Catholic church and of Christianity Latin America deserve mention: Enrique Dussel (ed.), The Church in Latin America, 1492–1992 (New York, 1992); Enrique Dussel, Historia de la iglesia en América Latina, 5th ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1984); English trans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the early years of the Communist movement in Latin America, see Robert Alexander, Communism in Latin America (New Brunswick, N.J., 1957) and Trotskyism in Latin America: (Stanford, Calif., 1973); and Rollie Poppino, International Communism in Latin America: A History of the Movement, 1917 to 1963 (New York, 1964). For excellent collections of documents, see Stephen Clissold (ed.), Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1918 to 1968: A Documentary Survey (London, 1970) and Luis Aguilar (ed.), Marxism in Latin America (Philadelphia, 1978). Relations between Latin America and the Comintern are treated in provocative fashion by Manuel Caballero, Latin America and the Comintern, 1919–1943 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986). Quite outstanding is the detailed analysis of the Comintern in Central America in Rodolfo Cerdas, La International Comunista, América Latina y la revolución en Centroamérica (San José, C.R., 1986); Eng. trans., The Communist International in Central America, 1920–1936 (London, 1993). Two books provide comprehensive coverage of relations between Latin America and the Soviet Union; Nicola Miller, Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1959–1987 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), and Eusebio Mujal-Leon (ed.), The USSR and Latin America: A Developing Relationship (London, 1989). See also the article by Rodolfo Cerdas Cruz, ‘New directions in Soviet policy towards Latin America’, JLAS. 21/1 (1989), 1–22; and Fernando Bustamante, ‘Soviet foreign policy toward Latin America’, JIAS. 32/4 (1990), 35–65. Cole Blasier examines Soviet perceptions of Latin America in The Giant's Rival: The USSR and Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1983). See also J. G. Oswald (ed.), The Soviet Image of Contemporary Latin America: A Documentary History 1960–1968 (Austin, Tex., 1970); William E. Ratliff, Castroism and Communism in Latin America, 1959–1976 (Washington, D.C., 1976); Augusto Varas (ed.), Soviet–Latin America Relations in the 1980s (Boulder, Colo., 1986); and Robert Leiken, Soviet Strategy in Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1982). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the bibliography of Brazil during the period from 1889 to 1930, see Thomas E. Skidmore, “The historiography of Brazil, 1889–1964”, HAHR, 55/4 (1975), 716–48, and 56/1 (1976), 81–109, and Angela de Castro Gomes and Marieta de Moraes Ferreira, “Primeira República: Um balanço historiográfico”, Estudos Históricos, 4 (1989), 244–80. An analysis of the modern trends in Brazilian historiography, in which there are references to works written on the period from 1889 to 1930, can be found in José Roberto do Amaral Lapa, A história em questão (Petrópolis, 1976). A general history of the period is Boris Fausto (ed.), História geral dacivilização brasileira, III: Brasil republicano, vols. 1 and 2 (São Paulo, 1977). See also three valuable books by Edgard Carone: A Republica Velha: Instituiçães e classes socials (São Paulo, 1970), A República Velha: Evolução polttica (São Paulo, 1971) and a collection of documents, A Primeira República, 1889–1930: Texto e contexto (São Paulo, 1969). Among older studies, worthy of particular note are José Maria Bello, História da república, 1889'1954, 4th ed. (São Paulo, 1959), Eng. trans, by James L. Taylor, A Históry of Modern Brazil, 1889–1954 (Stanford, Calif., 1966); and Leôncio Basbaum, História sincera da República, 4 vols. (São Paulo, 1962–68). On the relationship between agrarian society and the process of authoritarian modernization, see Elisa M. Pereira Reis, “The agrarian roots of authoritarian modernization in Brazil, 1880–1930” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1979). The class nature of the state is the subject of Décio Saes, A forma¸cão do estado burguês no Brasil, 1889–1891 (São Paulo, 1987). Steven Topik, The Political Economy of the Brazilian State, 1889–1930 (Austin, Tex., 1987) analyses the frankly interventionist role of the state in the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historiography of the church in Latin America in the period 1830–1930 is variable in coverage and quality and does not compare with the standard of historical writing in other aspects of Latin American history. One of the objects of the Comisión de Historia de la Iglesia en América Latina (CEHILA) is to remedy this situation, and the results of its work will be seen in the multi-volumed Historia general de la iglesia en América Latina under the general editorship of E. D. Dussel, individual volumes of which have already begun to appear. CEHILA has published a useful compendium on the sources and methods of church history, Para una historia de la Iglesia en América Latina: I Encuentro latinoamericano de CEHILA en Quito (1973) (Barcelona, 1975), which compensates to some extent for the lack of basic bibliographies. Meanwhile, history as well as other disciplines are well served by JLAS, 17/2 (1985), a number devoted largely to the church in Latin America. General histories of the church in Latin America are few in number. Enrique D. Dussel, Historia de la iglesia en América Latina: Colonizaje y liberación (1492–1973), 3rd ed. (Barcelona, 1974; Eng. trans., Grand Rapids, Mich., 1981) provides a framework of the subject, and Hans-Jürgen Prien, Die Geschichte des Christentums in Lateinamerika (Göttingen, 1978; Sp. trans., Salamanca, 1985), is a substantial history. See also Enrique Dussel (ed.), The Church in Latin America, 1492–1992 (New York, 1992). Individual countries have their church histories, often traditional in character but indispensable as sources of information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In spite of the apparently vast bibliography dealing with democracy in Latin America, there are many surprising gaps in the literature, particularly in terms of the development of truly comparable studies across countries and through time. The study of governmental and political institutions, which attracted attention especially among U.S. political scientists studying Latin American in the 1940s and 1950s, increasingly fell into disfavor through the 1960s and 1970s. This was a consequence initially of the sometimes excessive formalism of the earlier literature and of the onslaught of behavioralist perspectives (which did lead to many electoral studies); subsequently, it reflected the effects of dependency approaches which often viewed political processes as epiphenomenal, and then of the wave of military governments that swept through the region in the late 1960s and 1970s. With the transitions to civilian rule in the late 1970s and in the 1980s, and a concomitant revalorization of political democracy and of the importance of the study of institutions, there was a burgeoning literature on democracy in individual Latin American countries, as well as in a comparative perspective. This essay focuses almost exclusively on comparative publications, apart from a selected list of constitutional works. Several of the social or corporate actors central to democracy, such as labour, the left and the military, receive special attention in other bibliographical essays and are barely noted here. The country-specific bibliographical essays provide references to the essential country-specific literature on such issues as the history of democracy, political parties, elections and public policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature potentially relevant to this topic is vast, but sprawling and unmanageable. Oscar Oszlak, ‘The historical formation of the state in Latin America’, LARR, 16/2 (1981), 3–32, is a useful start, but deals only with the nineteenth century, as does his monograph, La formatión del estado argentino (Buenos Aires, 1990). The same is true of José Murilo de Carvalho, ‘Political elites and state-building: The case of nineteenth-century Brazil’, CSSH, 24 (1982), 378–99, and Fernando Uríoechea, The Patrimonial Foundations of the Brazilian Bureaucratic State (Berkeley, 1980). The main arguments of Claudio Véliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1980) remain unpersuasive. Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973) is a useful antidote. See also Horst Pietschmann, El estado y su evolución al principio de la colonización espanola de América (Mexico, D.F., 1989); A. Annino et al., America Latina: Dello stato coloniale allo stato nazione (1750–1940), 2 vols. (Milan, 1987); Oscar Oszlak, Ensayos sobre la formacion histórica del estado en América Latina (San José, C.R., 1981); and Arnaldo Córdova, ‘Los orígenes del Estado en América Latina’, Cuaderno 32, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico, D.F., 1977). For paired comparisons of nineteenth-century Latin American state-building, see Hélgio Trindade, ‘A construção do estado nacional na Argentina e no Brasil (1810–1900): Esboço de uma análise comparativa’, Dados, 28/1 (1985); and Fernando Uríoechea, ‘Formação e expansão do estado burocrático – patrimonial na Colombia e no Brasil’, Estudos CEBRAP, 21 (1977. See also Steven Topik, ‘The economic role of the state in Liberal regimes – Brazil and Mexico compared, 1888–1910’, in Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (eds.), Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History (New York, 1988). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few detailed historical studies of changes in the agrarian structure in the period. There are exceptions, but these are case studies of local-level processes. One of these exceptions in Luis González, Pueblo en Vilo: Microhistoria de San José de Gracia (Mexico, D.F., 1972); Eng. trans., San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex., 1974), a careful reconstruction of social and economic change in the Mexican historian's home town, which is the centre of a mainly ranching economy in the west of Mexico. A useful historical account, written by an anthropologist, again for Mexico and for a ranching economy, is Frans Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Petty Bourgeoisie in Twentieth Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980), which traces political and social change up to the late 1970s. Gavin Smith's Livelihood and Resistance: Peasants and the Politics of Land in Peru (Berkeley, 1989) is also written by an anthropologist, and provides a detailed historical study of the struggles of one community for land from 1850 to the mid-1970s, showing how changes in livelihood affected political action and consciousness. For Brazil, Verena Stolcke's Coffee Planters, Workers and Wives (New York, 1988) gives a history of the labour system on the São Paulo coffee plantations from 1850 to 1980 as it passed from slavery to forms of share-cropping to casual wage labour. Reconstructing the history of rural change in Latin America since 1930 depends on three major sources. First are the population and agricultural censuses for individual countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

World economy The most methodical attempt to explain the economic history of Developed Market Economies (DMEs) since the Second World War can be found in the work of A. Maddison; see especially Phases of Capitalistic Development (Oxford, 1982); ‘Growth and slowdown in advanced capitalist economies: Techniques of quantitative assessment’, Journal of Economic Literature, 25 (1987), 649–98; ‘Growth and fluctuations in the world economy, 1870–1960’, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Quarterly Review (September 1965); The World Economy in the 20th Century (OECD, Paris, 1989); and ‘A comparison of the levels of GDP per capita in developed and developing countries, 1800–1980’, The Journal of Economic History, 43 (1983), 159–78. See also I. Kravis and R. Lipsey, ‘The diffusion of economic growth in the world economy, 1950-1980’, in J. Kendrick (ed.), International Comparisons of Productivity and Causes of Its Slowdown (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). Excellent interpretations of the ‘Golden Age of Capitalism’ (1950–73), both in developed and developing economies, and the causes of its decline, can be found in S. Marglin and J. B. Schor (eds.), The Golden Age of Capitalism: Reinterpreting the Postwar Experience (Oxford, 1990), especially Marglin's ‘Lessons of the Golden Age: An overview’, and A. Glyn, A. Hughes, A. Lipietz and A. Singh, ‘The rise and fall of the Golden Age’. See also the influential book by R. Rowthorn and J. Wells, De-industrialization and Foreign Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1987). On developments in the world economy during the early years of the period, see S. Kuznets, Economic Growth and Structure (London, 1966). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few historical accounts that summarize the general processes of urbanization in Latin America or that provide histories of particular Latin American cities for the entire period since 1930. A valuable account of the early (1940s and 1950s) urbanization processes is Philip Hauser (ed.), Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1961), which was published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), reflecting its new-found preoccupation with urban issues in developing countries. The issues covered were demographic trends, employment, economic development, migration, housing, and planning. Richard Morse, ‘Latin American cities: Aspects of function and structure, ’ CSSH, 16/4 (1962), 473–93 reviews research on urbanization in the 1950s and early 1960s, and his two-part article, ‘Trends and issues in Latin American urban research, 1965–1970, ’ LARR, 6/1 (1971), 3–52 and 6/2 (1971), 19–75 examines trends in the mid and late 1960s. An important source of information and analysis is the annual series Latin American Urban Research (Beverly Hills, Calif.), which was published from 1970 to 1976, each year having a different thematic focus, including migration, urban poverty, and metropolitanization. From a more anthropological perspective, Douglas Butterworth and John Chance, Latin American Urbanization (Cambridge, Eng., 1981) takes account of studies carried out in the 1940s but concentrates on the 1960s and 1970s. The demographic perspective, analysing the evolution of urban primacy and the preoccupation with rapid population and urban growth in Latin America, is found in Glenn H. Beyer (ed.), The Urban Explosion in Latin America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967). A more recent analysis of trends in city growth and urbanization is Robert W. Fox, Urban Population Trends in Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1975). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974) provides a general overview of population in Latin America; chaps. 6–8 cover trends in the twentieth century. A second Spanish edition, La población de América Latina: Desde los tiempos precolombinos al año 2000 (Madrid, 1977) includes revisions and an extensive bibliography. Another, more recent overview in Carmen A. Miró, ‘América Latina: Transición demográfica y crisis económica, social y política’, in Memorias del Congresso Latinoamericano de Población y Desarrollo, vol. 1 (Mexico, D.F., 1984), 65–114. In preparation for the 1974 World Population Conference, the Comité Internacional de Coordinación de Investigaciones Nacionales en Demografía (CICRED) sponsored a series of national monographs in collaboration with Latin American demographic research centers. This series includes La población de Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975); La population du Brésil (Paris, 1974); La población de Chile (Paris, 1974); La población de Colombia (Bogota, 1974); La población de Costa Rica (San José, C.R., 1976); La población de Cuba (Havana, 1976); La población de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1976); La población de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1976); La población del Perú (Lima, 1974); and La población de Venezuela (Caracas, n.d.). Other general country studies include Thomas W. Merrick and Douglas H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in Brazil: 1800 to the Present (Baltimore and London, 1979) and Francisco Alba, The Population of Mexico: Trends, Issues, and Policies (New Brunswick, N.J., 1982). A useful, but now dated, bibliography is Robert N. Thomas, Population Dynamics of Latin America: A Review and Bibliography (East Lansing, Mich., 1973). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic performance and policy in the 1930s in Latin America has generated a substantial literature as a result of two factors in particular. First, the view put forward after 1950 by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America [and the Caribbean] (ECLA[C]), that the 1930s marked a crucial turning point in the transition from export-led growth to import-substituting industrialization (ISI) (see ECLA, Economic Survey of Latin America, 1949 [New York, 1951]) led to a wave of investigations to test this particular hypothesis. Secondly, the debt crisis in the 1980s inevitably invited comparisons with the debt crisis in the 1930s, with scholars searching for similarities and differences in Latin American responses to the two shocks. In view of the magnitude of the external shock applied to Latin America at the beginning of the 1930s, it is appropriate in a bibliographical essay to begin by referring to the literature on the international economy between the two world wars. A most important source is Charles Kindleberger, The World in Depression (Berkeley and London, 1986), which is a revised version of a classic book first published in 1973 and expanded with greater reference to the Latin American experience. There are a number of excellent surveys on world performance and policy, including Arthur Lewis, Economic Survey, 1919–39 (London, 1949) and H. W. Arndt, The Economic Lessons of the 1930s (London, 1944). Long-run trends in world trade, including the 1930s, are analysed in Alfred Maizels, Industrial Growth and World Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1963) and P. Lamartine Yates, Forty Years of Foreign Trade (London, 1959). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very little literature on the economic development of Latin America specifically addresses the 1940s. Analyses tend to see the 1929 Depression as initiating the shift to import-substituting industrialization in the form that is recognizable by the 1950s, and give little attention to the precise problematic of the Second World War and its aftermath. The wealth of studies of the 1930s therefore simply finds no parallel in the next decade. The international economy is, however, more fully studied, since this was a period of strong institutional innovation. See, for example, S. W. Black, A Levite among the Priests: Edward M. Bernstein and the Origins of the Bretton Woods System (Oxford, 1991). Robert A. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (New York, 1985) is an important study of the immediate postwar period, especially, for our purposes, chapter 9: ‘Natural resources and national security: U.S. policy in the developing world, 1945–50’. K. Kock, International Trade Policy and the GATT, 1947–1967 (Stockholm, 1969), is a useful source on GATT and the role of the United States. Longer-run general studies of the international economy that incorporate this period include: Alfred Maizels, Industrial Growth and World Trade: An Empirical Study of Trends in Production, Consumption and Trade in Manufactures, 1899–1959(Cambridge, Eng., 1963) and P. Lamartine Yates, Forty Years of Foreign Trade: A Statistical Handbook with Special Reference to Primary Products and Underdeveloped Countries (London, 1959). Two works on foreign investment which cover a longer span of Latin American economic history but which are useful for this period are Barbara Stallings, Bankers to the Third World: U.S. Portfolio Investment in Latin America, 1900–1986 (Berkeley, 1987) and J. Fred Rippy, British Investments in Latin America, 1822–1949 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1959). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rubens Borba de Moraes and William Berrien, Manual de estudos brasileiros (Rio de Janeiro, 1949), although outdated, is still the most important bibliographical guide. Specifically about the Empire but now also somewhat outdated are Stanley Stein, ‘The historiography of Brazil, 1808–1889’, HAHR, 40/2 (1960), 234–78; George Boehrer, ‘Brazilian historical bibliography: Some lacunae and suggestions’, RIB, 11/2 (1961), 137–49, and ‘The Brazilian Republican Revolution, old and new views’, L-BR, 3/2 (1966), 43–57. A more recent analysis of the historiography of the last two decades of the Empire is Emília Viotti da Costa, ‘Sobre as orígens da república’ in Da monarquia à república: Momentos decisivos (São Paulo, 1977), 243–90. A variety of interesting data can be found in the travelers' accounts published in the nineteenth century. Particularly informative and containing many useful tables is Santa-Anna Nery, La Brésil en 1889 (Paris, 1889). Also relevant for the study of the last decade of the Empire is Louis Couty, Le Brésil en 1884 (Rio de Janeiro, 1884); C. F. Van Delden Laerne, Le Brésil et Java: Rapport sur la culture du café en Amérique, Asie, et Afrique (avec chartes, planches et diagrammes) (The Hague, 1885); Max Leclerc, Cartas do Brasil (São Paulo, 1942); and Alfred Marc, Le Brésil, excursion á travers de ses 20 provinces (Paris, 1890). The years between 1870 and 1889 have been seen as years of crisis for the monarchical institutions. The first versions of the fall of the Empire were written either by monarchists or by republicans. The monarchists overestimated the role of the military in the 1889 coup while the republicans stressed the failure of monarchical institutions and the success of the republican campaign. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historiography of the period 1870–1930 may be approached through Nícia Vilela Luz, ‘Brazil’, in Roberto Cortés Conde and Stanley Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic History, 1830–1930 (Berkeley, 1977), which contains several hundred annotated entries of primary and secondary sources, as well as a valuable interpretive article. Important collections include various contributions on economic subjects to Sérgio Buarque de Holanda (ed.), História geral da civilização brasileira; Tomo II, 0 Brasil monárquico, vols. 3 and 4 (São Paulo, 1967, 1971); and the same series, edited by Boris Fausto, Tomo III, 0 Brasil republicano, vol. 1 (São Paulo, 1975); Colloque Internationale sur l' Histoire Quantitative du Brésil, L'Histoire quantitative du Brésil de 1800 à 1930 (Paris, 1971); Paulo Neuhaus (ed.), Economia brasileira: Uma visão histórica (Rio de Janeiro, 1980); Carlos Manuel Peláez and Mircea Buescu (eds.), A moderna história econômica (Rio de Janeiro, 1976); and Werner Baer et al., Dimensōes do desenvolvimento brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). Marcelo de Paiva Abreu (ed.), A ordem do progresso; cem anos de política econômica republicana (Rio de Janeiro, 1990) contains excellent summary articles by Winston Fritsch and Gustavo H. B. Franco. See also Albert Fishlow, ‘Brazilian development in long-term perspective’, American Economic Review, 70/2 (1980). Among general studies of the Brazilian economy in historical perspective the following deserve mention: Werner Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development, 3rd ed. (New York, 1989); Mircea Buescu, Problemas econômicas e experiência histórica (Rio de Janeiro, 1985); João Manuel Cardoso de Mello, 0 capitalismo tardio: Contribuição à revisão crítica da formação e do desenvolvimento da economia brasileira (São Paulo, 1982); and Carlos Manuel Peláez, História econômica do Brasil (São Paulo, 1979). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two recent compilations offer an entry to Colombian history in these fifty years. A. Tirado Mejía, director, assisted by J. O. Melo and J. A. Bejarano, Nueva historia de Colombia, 6 vols. (Bogotá, 1989) and J. Jaramillo Uribe, J. G. Cobo Borda and S. Mutis Durán (eds.), Manual de historia de Colombia, 3 vols. (Bogotá, 1978–9). For descriptions of the country in the 1880s, see M. Cané, En viaje, 1881–1882 (Paris, 1884); E. Rothlisberger, El Dorado (Bogotá, 1963); A. Hettner, Viajes por los Andes colombianos, 1882–1884 (Bogotá, 1976); R. Gutiérrez, Monografías, 2 vols. (Bogotá, 1920–21). A later work of exceptional value is P. J. Eder, Colombia (London, 1913), and the diary of the Bolivian novelist, historian and diplomat Alcides Argüedas, La danza de las sombras, new ed. (Bogotá, 1983) describes politics and society at the end of the 1920s. The occasional writings of Rafael Núñez are collected in La reforma política en Colombia, 7 vols. (Bogotá, 1946–50). The writings of Miguel Antonio Caro exist in various compilations apart from the Obras completas, 8 vols. (Bogotá, 1918–45). A new edition is in the course of publication by the Instituto Caro y Cuervo, and this is complemented by publications of his correspondence, much of it erudite but some of it political, and by volumes of constitutional studies and speeches. Of the correspondence, see especially E. Lemaitre (introd.), Epistolario de Rafael Núñez con Miguel Antonio Caro (Bogotá, 1977), especially valuable because Núñez's instructions that on his death his archive should be thrown into the sea were carried out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basic bibliographical reference is J. V. Lombardi et al., Venezuelan History: A Comprehensive Working Bibliography (Boston, 1977). Also important is the Diccionario de historia de Venezuela, published by the Fundación Polar under the direction of M. Pérez Vila, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1988). Two modern short histories are J. V. Lombardi, Venezuela (New York, 1982) andj. Ewell, Venezuela (London, 1984). The political history of the period 1870–1930 can be studied in M. Picón Salas et al., Venezuela independiente: Evolutión politica y social, 1810–1960 (Caracas, 1962), and the later years in R. J. Velásquez et al., Venezuela moderna: Medio siglo de historia, 1926–1976, 2nd ed. (Caracas, 1979). Up until the year 1890 the relevant volumes of F. González Guinán, Historia contemporánea de Venezuela, 15 vols. (Caracas, 1909–25) are still most valuable. Three collections of documents are particularly useful: P. Grases and M. Pérez Vila (eds.), Documentos que hicieron historia (Caracas, 1862); N. Suárez Figueroa, Programas politicos venezolanos de la primera mitad del siglo XX, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1977); R. J. Velásquez (ed.), El pensamiento político del siglo XX: Documentos para su estudio (Caracas, 1983– ; two series so far). See also M. V. Magallanes, Los partidos políticos en la evolutión venezolana (Caracas, 1973). On Guzmán Blanco, see T. Polanco Alcántara, Guzmán Blanco: Tragédia en tres partes y un epílogo (Caracas, 1992); R. Díaz Sánchez, Guzmán: Elipse de una ambición de poder, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1968); R. A. Rondón Márquez, Guzmán Blanco, ‘el autócrata civilizador’, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1944); and R. R. Castellanos V., Guzmán Blanco íntimo (Caracas, 1969). Two useful articles are J. Nava, ‘ “The illustrious American”: The development of nationalism in Venezuela under Antonio Guzmán Blanco’, HAHR, 45/4, 1965 and M. B. Floyd, ‘Política y economía en tiempos de Guzmán Blanco: Centralización y desarrollo, 1870–1888’, in M. Izard et al., Política y economía en Venezuela, 1810–1976 (Caracas, 1976), which has other useful essays on this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two modern general histories of the Latin American labour movements that cover the pre-1930 period in some depth are Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., Organized Labor in Latin America (New York, 1977), and Ricardo Melgar Bao, El movimiento obrero latinoamericano (Madrid, 1988). In Julio Godio, Historia del movimiento obrero latinoamericano, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1980–3), the first volume deals with the movements in Argentina, Mexico and Chile up to 1918, while the second treats communism and nationalism for the region as a whole between 1918 and 1930. Charles Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia (Stanford, Calif., 1986) provides four case studies informed by dependency theory. Robert Paris and Madeleine Rebérioux, ‘Socialisme et communisme en Amérique latine’, in Histoire générate du socialisme, Jacques Droz (ed.), (Paris, 1978), vol. 4, is an informative shorter survey. Pablo González Casanova (ed.), Historia del movimiento obrero en América Latina, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1984) is composed of chapters on each country in Latin America, including Puerto Rico. The authors are sometimes not very concerned with pre-1930 developments, and the theoretical approaches vary considerably from one chapter to another. Nevertheless, the collection is valuable, particularly in the case of the smaller countries, where the chapters included are sometimes the best or at least most accessible syntheses available. The most comprehensive bibiliography remains Carlos Rama, L'Amérique latine: 1492–1936 (Mouvements ouvriers et socialistes) (Paris, 1959), also available in a later German edition: Die Arbeiterbewegung in Lateinamerica: Chronologie und bibliographie, 1492–1966 (Bad Homburg, 1967). Additional material can be found in Kenneth Paul Erickson, Patrick V. Peppe and Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., ‘Research on the urban working class and organized labor in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile: What is left to be done?’, LARR, 9/2(1974), 115–42. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General surveys There are several general histories of Bolivia which cover the period 1880–1932, notably Alcides Argüedas, Historia general de Bolivia (La Paz, 1922); Enrique Finot, Nueva historia de Bolivia (Buenos Aires, 1946); and Jorge Basadre, Perú, Chile y Bolivia independientes (Barcelona, 1948). A more recent and detailed study is Herbert S. Klein, Parties and Political Change in Bolivia, 1880–1932 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968). Much of the recent research on the social and economic history of the period is summarized in Herbert S. Klein, Bolivia, the Evolution of a Multi-ethnic Society, 2nd ed. (New York, 1991), while a useful comparative framework is provided in Magnus Mörner, The Andean Past: Land, Societies and Conflict (New York, 1985). An alternative vision of national history is attempted in Xavier Albó and Josep M. Barnadas, La cara campesina de nuestra historia (La Paz, 1984). A fundamental bibliographical survey worth consulting is Josep M. Barnadas, Manual de bibliografía: Introduction a los estudios bolivianos contempordneos, 1960–1984 (Cuzco, 1987). Among more specialized works, Luis Penaloza is re-writing his Historia económica de Bolivia, 2 vols. (La Paz, 1953–4); and both this older work and his Nueva historia económica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1985–), a proposed 9-volume survey, give a reasonable though limited introduction to the field. More schematic, but with important retrospective statistical data, is Eduardo Arze Cuadros, La economía de Bolivia…1492–1919 (La Paz, 1979). A general survey of organized labor in Bolivian history is provided in Guillermo Lora, History of the Bolivian Labour Movement, 1848–1971 (Cambridge, Eng., 1977). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peruvian historiography for the period 1880–1930 has undergone a vast expansion and renovation during the past three decades. This transformation began with the universal interest generated by the so-called Peruvian military revolution of 1968, which inaugurated a period of intense reform lasting until 1976. Moreover, a decade of relative economic growth and prosperity during the 1960s, combined with postwar demographic trends, produced a rapid expansion of the country's educational system, particularly at the university level. As a result a rising middle class, anxious to rediscover its identity and redefine the national experience, created a strong, new demand for knowledge about Peru's history. The result was an ever-increasing production of new and often revisionist works by a new generation of Peruvian scholars who have transformed the traditional landscape of Peruvian historiography. This new production, however, has slowed in recent years due to the economic decline and political instability that Peru has experienced since the mid 1970s. These difficult conditions make it increasingly problematic that a new generation of Peruvianists will emerge to carry on the historiographical innovations of the past quarter of a century. Any study of the period 1880–1930 must begin with the dozen or more works of Jorge Basadre, the dean of modern Peruvian historians. His seventeen-volume Historia de la República del Perú, 6th ed. (Lima, 1968–9) stands as a towering monument in the field, with five volumes devoted to the period 1880–1930. He also published the most complete, annotated bibliography for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: Introductión a las bases documentales para la historia de la República del Perú con algunas reflexiones, 2 vols. (Lima, 1971). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A major statistical source for the study of Argentina on the eve of the First World War is Ernesto Tornquist, The Economic Development of the Argentine Republic in the Last Fifty Years (Buenos Aires, 1919). For the war period itself students should also consult Tornquist's quarterly publication, Business Conditions in Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1913–22). A second source of information is the writings of Alejandro E. Bunge. See his Ferrocarriles argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1917) and Los problemas económicos del presente (1919; Buenos Aires, 1979). Both are encyclopaedic collections of facts and figures. Slightly later came Bunge's La economia argentina, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1928–30), a work containing many of the author's press writings from past years and articles from a major journal he edited, the Revista de Economía Argentina. Other important publications are the national census of 1914, Tercer Censo National (Buenos Aires, 1915–17), which is far more than a mere population count, and Alberto B. Martínez and Maurice Lewandowski, The Argentine in the Twentieth Century (London, 1911). For population, see also Recensement général de la ville de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1910). The most outstanding contemporary study of Argentina from abroad is the publication by Lloyd's Bank to celebrate the centennial anniversary of 1910: Reginald Lloyd (ed.), Twentieth Century Impressions of Argentina: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries and Resources (London, 1911). Pierre Denis, The Argentine Republic: Its Development and Progress, translated by Joseph McCabe (London, 1922), is a useful geographical survey by a Frenchman, though much inferior to its predecessor from the 1860s by Martin de Moussy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the period under discussion, there were three national censuses (1852, 1860, 1908). For official statistics, see Cuadernos (Montevideo, 1873–1874) and Anuarios estadísticos (Montevideo, 1884–); valuable statistical information is gathered together in Juan Rial, Estadísticas históricas del Uruguay 1850–1930 (Montevideo, 1980). Juan E. Pivel Devoto has published a substantial part of the correspondence sent to their respective chanceries by the ministers of France, Italy, Spain and Germany. See the Revista Histórica of the National Historical Museum, Montevideo, vols. 32–39 (1962–8). For the diplomatic and consular documents of the Kingdom of Italy, see also Juan A. Oddone, Una perspectiva europea del Uruguay: Los informes diplomáticos y consulares italianos, 1862–1914 (Montevideo, 1965). In addition to the large-circulation newspapers, the Revista de la Asociación Rural (from 1872) and the Revista de la Federación Rural (from 1915), which reflected agrarian interests, and El Industrial Uruguayo (1902–1912) and the Revista de la Unión Industrial Uruguaya (1899–1928), representing the industrial sector, are important sources. Other complementary sources (travellers, memoirs-writers and essayists) have been analysed in Carlos Real de Azúa, Viajeros y observadores extranjeros del Uruguay: Juicios e impresiones (1889–1964) (Montevideo, 1965), Antología del ensayo uruguayo contemporáneo, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1964) and ‘Prosa del mirar y del vivir’, in Capítulo Oriental, 9 (Montevideo, 1968). General works include Eduardo Acevedo, Anales históricos del Uruguay, 6 vols., 2nd ed. (Montevideo, 1933–6); Luis C. Benvenuto, Breve historia del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1969); Roque Faraone, El Uruguay en que vivimos (1900–1968) (Montevideo, 1970); Benjamín Nahum, La época batllista, 1905–1929 (Montevideo, 1975); M. Blanca Paris de Oddone et al., Cronología comparada de la historia del Uruguay, 1830–1945, 2nd ed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among general works covering this period, the best to date are (in English) Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1988), chaps. 6–7, and Fredrick B. Pike, Chile and the United States 1880–1962 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1963) – much more comprehensive than its title suggests – and (in Spanish), Leopoldo Castedo, Resumen de la historia de Chile, 1891–1925 (Santiago, Chile, 1982), a brilliantly illustrated book. See also an ambitious work by Gonzalo Vial, Historia de Chile, 1891–1973 (Santiago, Chile, vol. 1 in two parts, 1981; vol. 2, 1983; vol. 3, 1987); the volumes published so far cover the period 1891–1925 in great detail. The diplomatic history of the period is treated in Mario Barros, Historia diplomática de Chile, 1541–1938 (Barcelona, 1970); see also William F. Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict (Athens, Ga., 1990), especially chaps. 3–5. Joyce Goldberg, The ‘Baltimore’ Affair (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986) capably dissects a briefly tense moment in Chile–U.S. relations at perhaps greater length than the ‘affair’ itself might seem to warrant. Constitutional and political history of these years is stimulatingly covered in Julio Heise González, Historia de Chile: El período parlamentario, 1861–1925, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1974–82); published during the Pinochet dictatorship, these two volumes underscored the increasingly democratic content of Chile's history in the period concerned. General works dealing with the social and economic dimensions include Arnold Bauer, Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest to 1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1975), especially the later chapters; Brian Loveman, Struggle in the Countryside: Politics and Rural Labor in Chile, 1919-1913 (Bloomington, Ind., 1976) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been increasing scholarly attention paid to the period dealing with Paraguay between the War of the Triple Alliance (1865–70) and the Chaco War (1932–5). Harris Gaylord Warren, Paraguay and the Triple Alliance: The Postwar Decade, 1869–1878 (Austin, Tex., 1978) is a serious study of the early part of this period. The period from 1878 to the 1904 revolution has been analysed in Harris G. Warren and Katherine E. Warren, Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic: The First Colorado Era, 1818–1904 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985). The 1904 revolution is the subject of essays by Harris G. Warren, ‘The Paraguayan revolution of 1904’, TA, 36 (1980); and Juan Carlos Herken Krauer, ‘La revolución de 1904 en el Paraguay: El trasfondo socio-económico y la perspectiva británica’, Revista Paraguay a de Sociología, 22/62 (1985). On the relationship between business and politics, see Diego Abente, ‘Foreign capital, economic elites and the state in Paraguay during the Liberal Republic, 1870–1936–, JLAS, 21/1 (1989), 61–88; and Juan Carlos Herken Krauer, Ferrocarriles, conspiraciones y negocios, 1910–1914 (Asunción, 1984), ‘Políticos, empresarios y financistas en el Paraguay, 1907–1920’, JGSWGL, 22 (1985), 423–55, and ‘Ferrocarril, política y economía en el Paraguay: El acuerdo de 1907 entre el Paraguay Central Railway Company y el gobierno paraguayo’, l–AA, 10/3 (1984), 291–316. Other studies of several aspects of this hitherto neglected period include Juan C. Herken Krauer, El Paraguay rural entre 1869 y 1913 (Asunción, 1984); Diego Abente, ‘The liberal republic and the failure of democracy’, TA, 45/4 (1989), 525–46; Ricardo Caballero Aquino, La segunda repúblka paraguaya (Asunción, 1984); and Harris G. Warren, ‘Journalism in Asunción under the allies and the Colorados, 1869–1904’, TA, 50, 14 (1983), 483–98. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are a number of general works on the political process in Argentina between 1870 and 1914: Academia Nacional de la Historia, Historia argentina contemporánea 1862–1930, vols. 1 and 2 (Buenos Aires, 1964, 1966); Ricardo Levillier (ed.), Historia argentina, vol. 4 (Buenos Aires, 1968); E. Gallo and R. Cortés Conde, La república conservadora (Buenos Aires, 1972); N. Botana, El orden conservador: La política argentina entre 1880 y 1916 (Buenos Aires, 1977); G. Ferrari and E. Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al centenario (Buenos Aires, 1980); and David Rock, Argentina 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to the Falklands War (Berkeley, 1988). Still useful are the classic studies by L. H. Sommariva, Historia de las intervenciones federales en las provincias, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1929), José N. Matienzo, El gobierno representativo federal en la República Argentina (Madrid, 1917), and Rodolfo Rivarola, Del régimen federativo al unitario (Buenos Aires, 1908). Also worth consulting is the documentary compilation by Isidoro Ruiz Moreno (ed.), La federalización de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1980). Some biographies contain useful information on the period. See, for example, two studies by Agustín Rivero Astengo, Juárez Celman: Estudio histórico y documental de una época argentina (Buenos Aires, 1940), and Pellegrini, 1846–1906, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1941); R. Sáenz Hayes, Miguel Cané y su tiempo, 1851–1905 (Buenos Aires, 1955); and José Arce, Roca 1843–1914: Su vida y su obra (Buenos Aires, 1960); F. Luna, Soy Roca (Buenos Aires, 1989); A. W. Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento (Princeton, N.J., 1952); J. Campobassi, Mitre y su época (Buenos Aires, 1980); and D. F. Weinstein, Juan B. Justo y su época (Buenos Aires, 1978). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The best and most complete bibliographical study of the economic history of Argentina in the period 1870–1914 is Tulio Halperín Donghi, ‘Argentina’, in Roberto Cortés Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic History 1830–1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977). Among the general works which appeared after the Second World War, Ricardo M. Ortiz, História economica de la Argentina, 1850–1930, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1955) was, for many years, the most widely read work on the economic history of Argentina. During the 1960s two works in this field were to have a significant influence: Aldo Ferrer, La economía argentina: Las etapas de su desarrollo y problemas actuates (Buenos Aires, 1963) which, like Celso Furtado's study of Brazil, examines the structure of the economy from the colonial period to the present and is strongly influenced by the literature on development from ECLA/CEPAL; and Guido Di Tella and Manuel Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo económico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1967), originally conceived as a thesis under the supervision of W. W. Rostow, which accepts the rapid growth of the period 1880–1914 and seeks to explain why it was not sustained after 1914. See also the essays in D. C. M. Platt and G. Di Telia (eds.), The Political Economy of Argentina, 1880–1946 (London, 1986), including David Rock, ‘The Argentine economy, 1880–1914: Some salient features’. The first chapter of Carlos F. Díaz Alejandro's important work, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970), considers the period prior to 1930. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1958 Daniel Cosío Villegas, one of Mexico's greatest historians whose special field was the history of Mexico from 1867 to 1910, stated that, quite apart from the period of the Restored Republic (1867–76), nearly 2,000 books and pamphlets had been written on the Porfirian period (1876–1910) alone. Yet, with a number of significant exceptions, the most important works on this period of Mexican history have appeared since the 1950s. The secondary literature on the period 1867–1910, and especially on the Porfiriato, is assessed in Daniel Cosío Villegas, ‘El Porfiriato: Su historiografía o arte histórico’, in Extremos de América (Mexico, D.F., 1949), 113–82; John Womack, Jr., ‘Mexican political historiography, 1959–1969’, in Investigaciones contemporáneas sobre historia de México (Mexico, D.F., and Austin, Tex., 1971); Enrique Florescano, Elpoder y la lucha por el poder en la historiografía mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1980); and Thomas Benjamin and Marcial Ocasio-Meléndez, ‘Organizing the memory of modern Mexico: Porfirian historiography in perspective, 1880s-1980s’, HAHR, 64/2 (1984), 323–64. The most important, most comprehensive work on the whole period from 1867 to 1910 is the monumental Historia moderna de México (Mexico, D.F., 1958–72), a huge thirteen-volume collective work edited and partly written by Daniel Cosio Villegas. It was written in the 1950s and 1960s under Cosío's direction by a team of historians who collected every available piece of evidence in Mexican, North American and European archives, and examined all aspects of life in Mexico, embracing political, economic and social as well as intellectual history. The most important general work to have been published on the Díaz period since the history of Cosío Villegas is Francois-Xavier Guerra, Le Mexique: De l'ancien regime à la revolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1985). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The preservation of historical sources in the Dominican Republic has suffered greatly under the country's historical vicissitudes. Of the important documents that survived, many are in private hands. The former director of the Archivo General de la Nación, Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi, has edited a wide range of source material: Hostos en Santo Domingo, 2 vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1939); Relaciones históricas de Santo Domingo, 3 vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1942, 1945 and 1957); Correspondencia del cónsul de Francia en Santo Domingo, 1844–1846, vol. 1 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1944); Documentos para la historia de la República Dominicana, 3 vols. (vol. 1, Ciudad Trujillo, 1944; vol. 2, Santiago, Dom. Rep., 1949; vol. 3, Ciudad Trujillo, 1959); Correspondencia del cónsul de Francia en Santo Domingo, 1846–1850, vol. 2 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1947); La marina de guerra dominicana, 1844–1861 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1958); Actos y doctrina del gobierno de la restauración (Santo Domingo, 1963); Papeles de Espaillat: Para la historia de las ideas políticas en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1963) and Papeles de Pedro F. Bonó (Santo Domingo, 1964). Bibliographies are scarce. Three may be mentioned here: Deborah Hitt and Larman Wilson, A Selected Bibliography of the Dominican Republic: A Century after the Restoration of Independence (Washington, D.C., 1968); Wolf Grabendorff, Bibliographie zu Politik und Gesellschaft der Dominikanischen Republik: Neuere Studien 1961–1971 (Munich, 1973) and Kai Schoenhals, Dominican Republic, World Bibliographical Series, vol. 3 (Oxford, 1990). Of the general histories, Sumner Welles, Naboth's Vineyard: The Dominican Republic 1844–1924, 2 vols. (New York, 1928), has deservedly been reprinted (New York, 1966); Sp. trans. La Viña de Naboth (Santiago, Dom. Rep., 1939). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1973 the Scarecrow Press (Washington, D.C.) published an appendix to Max Bissainthe's Dictionnaire de bibliographic haïtienne (Washington, D.C, 1951); together they represent the best bibliography of works on Haiti and by Haitians. For the latter part of the period, Kraus International has published The Complete Haitiana, 1900–1980 (Millwood, N.Y., 1982), edited by Michel Laguerre. It is a disappointing volume; for some of its shortcomings, see L.-F. Hoffmann, ‘The incomplete Haitiana’, Caribbean Review, 12/2 (1983). Mention should also be made of Max Manigat, Haitiana, 1971–1975 (LaSalle, Que., 1980) and vol. 39 in the World Bibliographical Series, compiled by Frances Chambers, Haiti (Oxford and Santa Barbara, Calif, 1983). James Leyburn's classic, The Haitian People (1941; rev. ed. with forward by Sidney Mintz, New Haven, Conn., 1966) remains one of the best introductions to Haitian history and social structure, despite its occasional shortcomings. Leyburn failed to recognise the full significance of the urban middle class and of important economic and social distinctions among the rural population; in the historical sections he is sometimes a victim of what may be called the ‘mulatto legend’ of the Haitian past. A book by the Polish scholar, Tadeusz Lepkowski, has been translated into Spanish under the title Haití (Havana, 1968–9); the author deals, among other things, with the early history of Haiti, with Haitian historiography and with the development of agriculture. Robert Rotberg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston, 1971) has useful sections on the Haitian economy of the period but is otherwise undistinguished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Printed sources, bibliography and historiography The most inclusive and best organized guide to the literature on the Mexican Revolution is W. D. Raat, The Mexican Revolution: An Annotated Guide to Recent Scholarship (Boston, 1982). Indispensable guides to official documents, pamphlets, newspapers, manifestos, and published correspondence are L. González y González (ed.), Fuentes de la historia contemporánea de México: Libros y folletos, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1962–3) and S. R. Ross (ed.), Fuentes de la historia contemporánea de México: Periódicos y revistas, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1965–76). The most important body of printed materials is I. Fabela and J. E. de Fabela (eds.), Documentos históricos de la revolución mexicana, 27 vols. and index (Mexico, D.F., 1960–76). Useful reprints from the Mexican press appear in M. González Ramírez (ed.), Fuentes para la historia de la revolución mexicana, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1954–7). Bibliographies and historiographic articles with analysis of the main currents in the literature on the Revolution include: D. M. Bailey, ‘Revisionism and the recent historiography of the Mexican Revolution’, HAHR, 58/1 (1978), 62–79; G. Bringas and D. Mascareno, La prensa de los obreros mexicanos, 1870–1970: Hemerografía comentada (Mexico, D.F., 1979); C. W. Reynolds, ‘The economic historiography of twentieth-century Mexico’, in Investigaciones contemporáneas sobre la historia de México: Memorias de la tercera reunión de historiadores mexicanos y norteamericanos (Mexico, D.F., and Austin, Tex., 1971), 339–57; J. D. Rutherford, An Annotated Bibliography of the Novels of the Mexican Revolution (Troy, N. Y., 1972); E. Suárez Gaona (ed.), El movimiento obrero mexicano: Bibliografía (Mexico, D.F., 1978); H. W. Tobler, ‘Zur Historiographie der mexikanischen Revolution, 1910–1940’, JGSWGL, 12 (1975), 286–331; and J. Womack, Jr., ‘Mexican political historiography, 1959–1969’, in Investigaciones contemporáneas, 478–92 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Useful bibliographical works include Augusto Bird, Bibliografía puertorriqueña de fuentes para investigaciones sociales 1930–45 (Río Piedras, 1947) and J. Bulnes and E. González-Díaz (eds.), Bibliografía puertorriqueña de ciencias sociales (Río Piedras, 1977). The latter classifies, according to subject, books and articles written from 1931 to 1960, many of which deal with or refer to the period before 1930. See also Paquita Vivó (ed.), The Puerto Ricans: An Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1973) which comprises a very limited selection of entries, but contains useful commentaries. A. G. Quintero-Rivera (ed.), Lucha obrera: Antología de grandes documentos en la historia obrera puertorriqueña (San Juan, 1971), Eng. trans. Workers' Struggle in Puerto Rico, a Documentary History (New York, 1976), a collection of documents on the labour movement mostly in the period 1870–1940, includes a detailed and annotated bibliography of the labour literature of the period. By the same author see Historia del analisis social en Puerto Rico, bibliografía temática (San Juan, P.R., 1990), mainly on intellectual history. Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (New York, 1963) is an important general survey of the history of Puerto Rico which evaluates the principal studies of the island since the end of Spanish rule (1898). On Puerto Rican intellectual history in the late nineteenth century, see also Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in its Ideological Aspects 1492–1900 (Baltimore, 1983) and, for the first decades of the twentieth century, Arcadio Díaz-Quiñones, El almuerzo en la hierba (San Juan, P.R., 1982) and ‘Tomás Blanco: Racismo, historia, esclavitud’ in T. Blanco, El prejuicio racial en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1985). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an extensive bibliographical essay in R. L. Woodward, Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New York, 1985). There are also good bibliographies on each republic. See, for example, Charles Stansifer, Costa Rica (Oxford, 1991); Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., El Salvador (Oxford, 1988); Pamela Howard–Reguindin, Honduras (Oxford, 1992); and for Nicaragua, Latin American Bibliographic Foundation, Nicaraguan National Bibliography, 1800–1978 (Redlands, Calif, 1986–7). Three books provide a general view of the period 1870–1930: Mario Rodríguez, Central America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965), which is rather favourable to U.S. policies in the isthmus; Woodward, Central America; and Ciro Cardoso and Héctor Pérez Brignoli, Centroamérica y la economía occidental (1520–1930) (San José, C.R., 1977). See also the relevant chapters of Héctor Pérez Brignoli, Breve historia de Centroamérica (Madrid, 1985), Victor Bulmer–Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987), and James Dunkerley, Power in the Isthmus. A Political History of Modern Central America (London, 1988). The best general book on an individual Central American state is David Browning, El Salvador: Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971). On the Central American coffee economies, see C. Cardoso, ‘Historia económica del café en Centroamérica (siglo XIX): Estudio comparativo’, ESC, 4/10 (1975), 9–55. On coffee in Guatemala in the second half of the nineteenth century, see Julio Castellanos Cambranes, Café y campesinos en 12. Central America 411 Guatemala, 1853–1897 (Guatemala City, 1985). On the banana plantations, general works are Stacy May and Galo Plaza, The United Fruit Company in Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1958), which is favourable to the company; Charles Kepner, Social Aspects of the Banana Industry (New York, 1936), and Kepner and Jay Soothill, The Banana Empire (New York, 1935), which are far more critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]