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The Wari state expanded during the seventh century to colonize a vast area of the Andes and incorporate many ethnic groups. The relations established between Wari-sponsored colonists and the people indigenous to these new territories differed for a number of reasons. In this paper I consider the degree of political centralization as a key factor that determined the long-term impacts Wari expansion had on subject groups. While all Wari subjects may have been compelled to participate in the empire’s political economy, some aspects of their daily life may have remained relatively unchanged. Using the multi-ethnic colony in Moquegua as an example this paper examines which attributes associated with Wari practices were adopted and which aspects of their identities were maintained.

This paper analyzes Marcos Espinel’s life between 1835 and 1846. By studying his life, it is possible to understand the multiple forms of political participation of the Ecuadorian political leaders, their intellectual formation, and the changes in their political positions in the context of the nascent 19th-century republicanism. The paper has been divided into two parts. The first one considers printed activity within the political circle of José Félix Valdivieso in which Espinel was involved. This was used to support his project to re-annex Ecuador to New Granada and to promote the vote in 1839. In the second part, the paper studies Espinel’s contributions to the second administration of Juan José Flores, and Espinel’s political support of the provisional government of Vicente Ramón Roca.

This paper offers reflections about elements that affect women’s decisions about reproduction and abortion. It contributes to debates about policies, activist campaigns and the Bolivian Penal Code, in a context where inequalities and gender-based violence challenge the efficacy of technologies and laws to guarantee women’s ability to exercise the right to choose. The authors analyze women’s narratives about their experiences in two studies carried out in La Paz and El Alto, and consider different interpretations of men’s participation and approaches from the field of masculinities. The paper examines diverse situations relating to abortion that illustrate the complexity faced by women deciding on reproductive matters, alone or with the participation of partners and others.

This paper is based on research in the Establecimiento Penitenciario Mujeres de Chorrillos in Lima, Peru. I will analyze how citizenship intersects with race and gender inside the prison in order to limit or make available access to resources. Incarcerated non-Peruvians serving sentences for drug trafficking are the focus of this paper. Although the women included in this paper were all extranjeras, their citizenship status, combined with other positionalities, influenced their access to resources in multiple ways. Citizenship Is also a key factor in structuring relationships between foreign and Peruvian prisoners and the resulting hierarchy of this prison.

From a territorial perspective, the paper examines the current condition of metropolitan rural areas, based on the landscapes and their recent evolution in the valley of the Aburrá River which comprises the metropolitan area of Medellín. Literary narratives and folk music and its transit to the urban tradition are also employed in this study. Metropolitan rurality is characterized by social expressions and features from the physical environment. Overall the paper is oriented to produce an interpretation about the conditions and transformational dynamics of the metropolitan rurality within the Aburrá valley as the basis to define and debate this analytic category.

From a territorial perspective, the paper examines the current condition of metropolitan rural areas, based on the landscapes and their recent evolution in the valley of the Aburrá River which comprises the metropolitan area of Medellín. Literary narratives and folk music and its transit to the urban tradition are also employed in this study. Metropolitan rurality is characterized by social expressions and features from the physical environment. Overall the paper is oriented to produce an interpretation about the conditions and transformational dynamics of the metropolitan rurality within the Aburrá valley as the basis to define and debate this analytic category.

Recent archaeological research demonstrates that the south-central highlands was a region of important sociocultural developments during the Early Horizon (ca. 800-200 BC). One reason for the prominence of this region was the local availability of obsidian, a widely exchanged lithic material. In this paper, we discuss the results of a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) sourcing study of a sample of 26 obsidian artifacts from the site of Pallaucha, an Early Horizon civic ceremonial center located near Vilcashuaman in the Department of Ayacucho, Peru. PXRF analysis demonstrates that the Quispisisa source was the most commonly exploited locality to acquire obsidian at Pallaucha even though other sources were in closer proximity. Our results complement the results of a study of a large sample of obsidian from the nearby, and partially contemporary, civic-ceremonial center of Campanayuq Rumi.

The aim of this paper is to present an overview of the French presence in Peruvian Andean anthropology. The paper identifies and analizes the studies, principal works, authors and theoretical approaches developed either in France or by French researchers that had an influence upon the development of Peruvian anthropology. The paper presents the principal institutional frameworks in which French anthropology dealing with the Peruvian Andes has evolved, and its links with the Peruvian academic world.

This paper shows how had an early influence in Peru, especially through the work of Mariano Cornejo, a lawyer who held the first chair of sociology in San Marcos University in 1896. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, institutional links between French and Peruvian sociology became stronger thanks to scholarships, academic exchange programs, and research projects. Some of the French sociologists who had an important influence in this period were François Bourricaud (power and politics); Alain Touraine (social movements); and Pierre Bourdieu (culture and education). Finally, the paper points out some of the contemporary developments in French sociology that are particularly interesting for Peruvian scholars.

In this paper I report results of the recent archaeological research carried out at three Early Intermediate Period sites in the Acari Valley, on the south coast of Peru. Current results indicate that there were at least four different burial types, one of which appears to have been mainly reserved for infants while the other three were used for any member of the society, including infants. With one exception, each mortuary structure was built to house a single individual. Bodies were wrapped in textiles and placed in a seated posture, with the knees flexed towards the chest, the arms placed under the lower limbs and the hands near the genitals or the feet. In addition, body orientation is consistently toward north. Many graves were provided with a roof, while only some received offerings. These differences had nothing to do with age or sex, however. The mortuary customs discussed in this paper differ significantly from Nasca burial practices; for instance, Nasca goods are not among burial offerings. Such notable variations testify that Nasca and Huarato were different cultural traditions.

In this paper we describe the creation process of an Amazonian hero. Jumandy was one of the leaders of an indigenous rebellion against the Spaniards that took place in 1578 in the upper Napo area. Jumandy was discovered in archives by historians and ethnologists, and then established as a hero by the non-indigenous social elite of the Napo Province. Subsequently, the Napo Runa of the Ecuadorian Amazon adopted him as their hero in the context of the indigenous nationalist movement’s development. However, the vision of the hero Jumandy developed by the Napo Runa is different from the vision promoted by the non-indigenous social elite.

This paper studies memories of haciendas during the fiestas of Puyca (La Unión, Arequipa), a southern Andean village, and how some fiestas were redefined after the Land Reform. Based on the ethnographic case of the San Santiago fiesta, this article shows how the fiesta is a preferential context where hacienda memories are enunciated. The analysis of the discursive register used during fiestas, on the one hand, and the festive practices and structural changes in religious cargos, on the other hand, reveal much about the negotiations and actual power relations in Puyca.

This paper aims to strengthen a link between the history of cocaine and female imprisonment in Lima, Peru. First, I review the history of the traditional use of coca leaf in Peru and the development, use, and prohibition of cocaine, in a global framework. Second, I show how these are linked with the appearance of the category of figures knowns as «mules» and I analyze how women are targeted by the international drug trafficking networks to fill this role. Third, I analyze how drug trafficking can be considered as a survival strategy for many gendered, racialized and precarized women. Finally, I emphasize the idea that the profile of the women imprisoned in Lima for drug trafficking has to be understood from intersectional and global tendencies.

This paper presents archaeological information about female healers or curanderas that are represented on Moche ceramics discovered in the archaeological complex of the Huaca del Sol and the Huaca de la Luna. The work of female healers is a little-studied topic in Andean cultural anthropology and the presence of these curanderas in the Moche period demonstrates cultural continuity between the pre-Hispanic past and the present. In this paper, we suggest that the information gathered about the mesa symbolism of these contemporary female healers can help archaeologists and historians who study pre-Hispanic cultures when looking to understand the significance of archaeological contexts or when reconstructing the world-view and ideology of past cultures.

This paper examines the U'wa affair, a confrontation that became well know when a small indigenous group threatened to commit collective suicide in response to an oil exploitation project by two transnational companies (OXY and SHELL) associated with the state in Colombia. The story of a “tribe” willing to commit suicide in the name of what they consider to be sacred not only attracted the attention of the media all over the world, but the activism of numerous NGO's devoted to the environment and human rights. These organizations have played a key part in this confrontation which took place in the midst of the Colombian armed conflict. This article reflects on the set of images and representations which has guided the experience and the practice of the actors in dispute. At some point, all parties involved have prepared and even published maps intended to illustrate and sustain their argumentation. These maps all show the same combination of zones: those of the oil exploitation area and the indigenous lands, both the ones recognized by the state and the ancestral territories they claim as theirs. Each map shows these areas and the relation between them, but emphasizing particular features in different ways. They may thus be considered as cultural texts and constitute a corpus of information to approach and understand the conflict. Since cartography represents its objects in an allegedly objective manner, maps appear to be neutral in relation to the positions asserted by every actor. As a consequence, they offer a privileged standpoint from which to identify the hypotheses and assumptions that underlie their actions and enunciations. The paper explores, trough maps, and the “sub-text” in the arguments put forth by each of the antagonists: the notions, opinions and intentions they are not express explicitly (i.e., the “political unconscious” of the argumentation). The critical analysis of the conflict’s cartography shows how much the agenda of the environmental and human rights NGO’s resembles that of the oil boosters, and the means through which the indigenous cosmology is construed as static and essentialist, and in this way, rendered invisible and illegitimate in paradoxical ways.

The dimensions of the social exclusion phenomenon and its relation with poverty have been analyzed in many papers. Developed countries were the most concerned about this topic and conducted many researches on it. They propose that social exclusion is related to unemployment, ethnicity (immigrants) and age (elderly). In the case of developing countries, like Peru, social exclusion is an existent phenomenon but related to variables different from those of developed countries. In fact, the estimations made using the ENAHO Survey (2001, fourth trimester) show the different variables in which the social exclusion states in Peru. In this paper, we will try to propose answers to questions such as: Who is suffering social exclusion in Peru? What are they excluded from? Are all the poor excluded? What are the differences between an excluded poor and a non-excluded one? Is it important make this difference? Why? What are the implications of social exclusion to a country? Does social exclusion affect self-esteem and the capacity to challenge problems associated with poverty?

In this paper, the concept of ethnicity and the manner in which it is operationalized in national censuses are reviewed. Recognizing the need to register ethnic features in Latin American countries is, generally speaking, a relatively new process, generated by the variety of sociocultural dynamics existing in each country and by the reasons, specific to each country, that motivate this need. A conceptualization of ethnicity cannot therefore be applied in the same way to each national reality, which is reflected in the operationalization of each conceptualization in censuses. All this complicates efforts to establish standardized statistical criteria and procedures to allow the application of technically acceptable and politically admissible instruments, which could serve as a basis for comparing the situation of such groups in the different countries of the region. Despite all this, we believe it is necessary to continue progressing in this direction. We consider that a strategy which may allow relatively more secure conceptual progress is to begin by reviewing the most recent ideas on ethnicity, while using as a concrete reference the specific reality of a country that also has elements similar to those of other countries in the region. This is the case of Peru, where populations of Indigenous and African descent are found, albeit in very diverse proportions. Taking Peru as its reference, this paper first gives a brief presentation of the main current perspectives on ethnicity, and then discusses some of the implications of its operationalization in population censuses.

Diversifying sources of farming income is a crucial issue for the welfare of rural populations. Indeed, in rural areas, any additional work dedicated to activities that are not directly related to farming may contribute to rises in income, albeit modest. This paper demonstrates that, despite the potential of activities that complement farming, both in terms of job creation and income generation, there continues to be little understanding of this area of rural economy. This weakness is due to the heterogeneity of such activities, which produces a great deal of conceptual confusion, and to the shortcomings of national statistics, which do not register these activities properly. In spite of these difficulties, this paper seeks to provide an overview of the importance and characteristics of the activities that complement farming in Peru. Four main conclusions emerge from the results presented here: the unquestionable underestimation of these activities and the income they generate; the significant proportion of agriculture in complementary activities; the concentration of these activities in two or three sectors and the relative stability of their distribution in time and space, according to sectors; and a rather marked division of labor between men and women.

Recent archaeological research demonstrates that the south-central highlands was a region of important sociocultural developments during the Early Horizon (ca. 800-200 BC). One reason for the prominence of this region was the local availability of obsidian, a widely exchanged lithic material. In this paper, we discuss the results of a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) sourcing study of a sample of 26 obsidian artifacts from the site of Pallaucha, an Early Horizon civic ceremonial center located near Vilcashuaman in the Department of Ayacucho, Peru. PXRF analysis demonstrates that the Quispisisa source was the most commonly exploited locality to acquire obsidian at Pallaucha even though other sources were in closer proximity. Our results complement the results of a study of a large sample of obsidian from the nearby, and partially contemporary, civic-ceremonial center of Campanayuq Rumi.

This paper presents background information on the canal cleaning ceremony and request of rains in Socaire, northern Chile. The intention is to highlight the ritual importance of the mountains and the role that the elements of nature have with the social organization in this community. Different hypotheses about the importance of the sky and the existence of possible ceque lines are discussed, as well as geographic proposals for the location and hierarchy of the tutelary hills of the region. Based comparison with ethnohistorical information from Cuzco and other radial systems of the Andes, we confirm the importance of water and mountains as sacred entities in the Atacameño world, particularly in the months of August, September and October, which coincide with the beginning of the agricultural year, the cleaning of canals and the awakening of the grandparents in Socaire, respectively.

Aguada Portezuelo pottery from northwestern Argentine region is characterized by its marked polychromy and its broad repertoire of finishing techniques, mainly involving the surface treatments and the decoration of the vessels. These vessels present positive and negative motives together with the presence of pre- and post-firing painting. This paper presents detailed information on the main technological features involved in their production. The concept of craft specialization is discussed and revised in relation to the ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological models proposed in the central Andes.

In this paper I present a general discussion, using a “recursive” approach, of ideas and concepts that I consider important to improve the study of ceramic production by Andean communities. I understand this as a “nuclear practice”. Based on archaeological ethnography, I discuss the notion of community as an “assembly” of human and non-human agencies, and “affective networks” as a means of social “commitment”. To exemplify my approach to analysis, I present the case of the pottery community of Chipihayco, located in the valleys of southern Bolivia.

In this paper, I address the processes of constructing person and the acquisition of a new soul in the Awajun society (Jivaro linguistic family, Peru). This is based on psychotropic plants —tobacco, angel trumpet, ayahuasca and chagropanga—, the words and discourses about them as well as the implicit logics. On the other hand, it involves shamanism and vision quest. We will realize that these respective logics have different meanings to different people (common people or shaman): they are both opposite and complementary. Opposite, since the vision quest assumes a purge and a spiritual experience to be “clean, beautiful, adorned” and to have a life of plenty while shamanic practice requires a contamination to be prickly and to be able to gain access to the invisible. These perspectives are complementary, since the shamanic practice protects the individual from magical aggression or witchcraft during the vision quest.

Cashinahua kinship is renowned for its Kariera-like alternate generation system. What can then be the novel aspect of its study? A linguistic approach reveals several levels and nuances in verbal attitudes among the speakers (modes of address, greetings, speech registers), which are mainly focused on the contextual use of kinship terms. The paper proposes an ethnolinguistic description of this aspect of Cashinahua verbal art, which has received little attention in the literature on the Pano languages of the South American lowlands.

Although they seem to have converted very few people over the years, since the mid 50’s, Protestant missionaries have played, a crucial role in the political, social and economic lives of the Chacobo of Bolivian Amazon. Recently, their influence seems to have diminished, probably due to less affluent Bolivian missionaries being substituted for North American or Swiss missionaries from the SIL or the Misión Suiza. However, the influence of evangelicals is still quite strong because, among other reasons, most contemporary leadership roles are held by people who have been trained by missionaries and who come from families that have deliberately chosen to take sides with them. Paradoxically, some of the Chacobo who have worked with and/or for the missionaries, for instance as Bible translators or preachers, have nonetheless failed on the local political scene. In spite of their undeniable aptitudes, they simply lacked the other essential ingredient for power: support from influential kinship networks. This paper will therefore reflect on the respective importance of social versus religious determinants on the success of political careers among the Chacobo from 1955 until now.

The aim of this paper is to describe and analyze the development of historical climatology in Latin America in an attempt to identify the main perspectives presented by this discipline in the region. It is based on the assumption that this field of study is mainly linked to the discussions of climatology and environmental history. Climate history has been approached in a heterogeneous way in accord with the academic tradition of the country and the theoretical-methodological perspective considered. Nevertheless, there is value in the heterogeneity of Latin American studies of climate. It includes features that express a mestizo academic identity. The varied perspectives created werebased on the idea that each one works by itself coexisting and mixing inside this identity.

This paper examines two initiatives of learned associations to construct integrating guides to the past in two localities: Manizales, Colombia and San Luis Potosí, Mexico through a description and analysis of the appearance and trajectory of the journals Archivo Historial (1918-1923) and Bohemia (1942-1947). These journals are treated as concrete expressions of the work of the intellectuals of these cities to generate and spread knowledge about the locality and the region. Behind the work is the question about the conditions and activities carried out by the creators of these publishing initiatives in their efforts to search, collect and interpret information in order to generate the milestones that established the local and regional past.

In this paper we address the subject of human sacrifice and other possible behaviors associated with death in the Aguada populations from the northwest of Argentine (ca. A.D. 600-1200). Our aim is to discuss the arguments behind the existence of such practices and encourage an adequate analysis of the bioarchaeological record that would account for them. To achieve this, we will first present a synthesis on the current status of the research topic. In addition, we intend to cross-check the evidence and its multiple interpretations. This will be achieved manily by exploring the bioarcheological record of the Ambato valley (Catamarca province, northwest Argentina), with particular reference to La Rinconada site as well as other contemporary sites from the same zone. Although the archaeological record is ambiguous and quantitatively limited, the variety of the death-related behaviors it displays turns out to be significant, and this confirms the difficulty of identifying human sacrifice as a concrete social practice among these societies.

Like most Latin American countries, Bolivia adopted a new instrument of social assistance policies that was considered as the best way to fight poverty in the international area of development: Conditional Cash Transfer programs (CCT). These belong to the social investment perspective in the post-Washington Consensus. According to this perspective, CCT’s aim in the short term was to reduce poverty by increasing the money supply of households and in the long-term, it was to break the intergenerational cycle of poverty by investing in human capital for future generations. The appropriation of this perspective in Bolivia with the Bonos’ system was mediated by the new Plurinational State that included indigenous collective rights. Using a qualitative methodology of discourse analysis, this paper studies the “developmentalist” configuration of the Bonos and the interactions among policymakers and women recipients. An analysis of the interviews with policy makers and women recipients highlights that in Bolivia this new perspective reproduced old features of Latin American social policies: maternalism and neocolonialism.

Commemorated in 2014, the Centenary of the First World War represented an opportunity to renew traditional historical studies of the Great War by developing an analysis of the conflict from new spaces and with new questions. From that perspective, this paper studies the mobilization of the German community of Peru during the First World War based on two German-Peruvian publications: La Guerra Gráfica and Germania. In a country that was clearly pro-Allies, an analysis of the representations created by the German community of Peru is an invitation to interrogate the notions of mobilization and of the culture of war during a conflict that was both close and distant at the same time for these European migrants.

This paper shows the need of a methodological shift in urban studies from the examination of threat and vulnerability dynamics formulas towards a more complete comprehension of how urban systems operate. It contributes to discussions on the meanings of urban systems and their role in social development. Understanding urban spaces as social constructions leads to the recognition of a complex set of factors and parallel forms of land use, including need as a determinant in the formation of cities, the presence of diverse markets and the actions and lack of actions of the State. It is argued that solutions to this reality must be comprehensive and include elements of solidarity and that the construction of cities and risk management within urban settings should be seen as a responsibility shared between State and society.

This paper presents reflections on the information gathering that accompanied the technical, administrative and financial management process performed by the group Gidest to diagnose rural and urban households affected by heavy rains in 2008 and 2009 in thirty-five municipalities of Cundinamarca. It has been established that, rather than natural emergencies, the rural population is immersed physical, environmental, economic, social, political and legal vulnerabilities that are a problem for them as well the enormous difficulties that exist in gaining access to reconstruction subsidy policies, for various reasons, including the lack of interest of local governments.

This paper analyzes the modalities of the Inca occupation in the eastern valleys of the northern part of the present day Salta (Argentina). This study is based on an examination of previous research and the study of documents and colonial cartography and the regional archaeological record. The comparison of the data suggests that the Inca administration in this region of the south-eastern border of the Tawantinsuyu allowed the development of two territories that were very well differentiated in socio-economic terms. Under the Inca domination, the region experienced an intense population dynamic, characterized by the introduction of the mitmaqkuna tied to mineral-metallurgical and agricultural extraction, and by population movements of groups coming from the east.

Focusing on the district of Chungui in the Peruvian Andean region of Ayacucho, this paper analyzes how, in the aftermath of the Peruvian armed internal conflict, representations of human suffering have been produced. These representations could result in distortions reducing the Andes to a space inhabited by savages and ignorant people, if as scholars, we are not aware of the hierarchical relationships in which we are embedded. Therefore, the humanitarian witness that we become when we work with post-war communities must assume the role of someone who speaks for and not with war victims. This will allow us to avoid reproducing the hierarchies of power and domination we originally intended to fight.

This paper is based on a fieldwork realized inside and in the neighbourhood of the prison that shelters the highest number of female inmates in Peru. Its purpose is to analyse the mechanisms that govern a set of economic operations, which are not restricted to the prison space, but have an influence on a geographic area that is linked to the prison building. In-depth interviews make it posible to identify a variety of actors that are present in the expanded prison space and understand their roles and functions inside the economic network that have been formed over time that link the areas inside and outside the prison. Understanding the complexity of this universe is made possible through the use of two concepts, deviance and transgression culture, and application of these concepts reveal a previously unexplored reality.

This paper analyzes some aspects emerging from an ethnographic research about childrearing and child development from an ecological perspective. Its focuses on results if a fieldwork carried out in rural communities of the Calchaqui Valleys (Salta, Northwest Argentina) and based on the use of ethnographic techniques. By taking as reference the concept of “developmental niche”, discourses and practices about childrearing and children’s health care (guaguas) are characterized in the context of subsistence activities at the domestic scope. Moreover, transformations of theses discourses through generations and their articulations and tensions with different knowledge and institutional practices are deepened.

This paper examines some facets of the daily life of children and adolescents street workers, and their families. Although it refers to a research carried out in Lima between 1994 and 1999, it is not to describe the Peruvian reality of the 1990, or to present a comprehensive analysis of child labor and social policies that have been implemented until today. Its objective is rather to illustrate a set of approaches that, at the micro level, allow to understand everyday practices of children and adolescents street workers. In order to show the significance of economic, social, cultural and identity dimensions, material from two others qualitative studies on children’s work in Portugal and in Greece are presented. The underlying assumption of this analysis is that a better understanding of children’s everyday practices and their families facilitates appropriate and more efficient programs.

We analyzed two archaeological sites occupied during the fifteenth century A.D., located in the Hualfín Valley (Catamarca. Argentina). Excavations in these sites provided evidence of massive fires. We studied the specific characteristics of charcoal deposits including their locations and relationships to other materials (pottery, bone, charred maize) and we compared the results with finds from other sites. In this paper we focus on the inhabitant´s knowledge relating to forest resources and the technical condition of timbers and other building materials. Prosopis and Geoffrea specimens are identified as part of roof structures. Evidence of the fires is related to site´s abandonment.

This study attempts to understand the strategies developed by foreign traders at the beginning of the Peruvian Republic, based on a sudy of the activities of French businessman James Le Bris. It also attempts to understand how a European trading house within a society such as Arequipa sought to integrate itself into a reality that differed from the colonial one in the midst of ever-expanding international trade. In contrast to a historiography that seeks to explain the political and economic forces that emerged after Peruvian Independence, this paper attempts to enter the particular day by day in the life of a foreign employer his, trade links and his political relations within an important city of Republican Peru.

In 2004, the first urban aerial cable-car public transport system was introduced in the city of Medellín, Colombia. It is both a technically and socially innovative response to urban transport problems since it uses an application of ski-slope technology to connect the Northeast low-income areas of Medellín to the city. The Metrocable gave more visibility to the state action through urban planning. This paper considers how this project has been redefining the notion of periphery by reducing the distance between once marginal neighborhoods and the heart of the city. It outlines the impacts both in terms of mobility and spatial transformation in order to understand how such an infrastructure can be the expression of the political will of social and territorial inclusion and change the relation between the city and its periphery.

In 2004, the first urban aerial cable-car public transport system was introduced in the city of Medellín, Colombia. It is both a technically and socially innovative response to urban transport problems since it uses an application of ski-slope technology to connect the Northeast low-income areas of Medellín to the city. The Metrocable gave more visibility to the state action through urban planning. This paper considers how this project has been redefining the notion of periphery by reducing the distance between once marginal neighborhoods and the heart of the city. It outlines the impacts both in terms of mobility and spatial transformation in order to understand how such an infrastructure can be the expression of the political will of social and territorial inclusion and change the relation between the city and its periphery.

This paper examines the urban experience lived by the inhabitants of new social housing developments located in the most remote parts of Mexico City’s metropolitan periphery. Along the family trajectories of popular urban group, one generation accesses property. This moment constitues a turning-point: from that specific moment, the family developp urban practices at local and metropolitan scale. Two of the most significant phenomena generated are the emergence of communities and the relative empowerment of women as a central actor. Through the qualitative analysis of these processes, the defaults of the national housing policy are enlighten.

This paper examines the male body in Moche art as a locus for the ideological construction of gender. It proposes that the male body is characterized by vitality, violence, and potency, and that an aspect of this characterization may affect the conventions for representing the phallus. These conventions specifically refer to the erect, sexually potent phallus, even when a specific phallus is not depicted as erect. This mode of representation attempt to create a fixed state out of a temporary quality, by emphasizing the eternal performance of male gender.

The Wari Empire was an expansive state that incorporated many groups in the Peruvian Andes ca. AD600-1000. The ruling members of Wari society established asymmetrical relations with many regional polities or replaced them with state officials. In the provincial centers of this powerful empire, state officials interacted with regional leaders. Regional leaders, in many instances, did the same and continued to manage their followers through socio-political interactions as they were subsumed in the Wari political economy. Formal monumental settings for important socio-political relations underpinning the centralization of the Wari state were built in a few provincial areas, and have been interpreted as administrative centers, however socio-political relations crucial to maintaining power and control over many regions were not limited to these monumental centers. Socio-political connections between laborers and administrators would have been important at a number of scales and a complex hierarchy should be present if Wari is a state as many archaeologists suggest. This paper describes the use of space in elite residences at the Wari site of Cerro Mejia and demonstrate that these residential settings were organized around important political activities, such as holding meetings and hosting feasts, and other activities that would have played an important role in establishing and maintaining control of small regional groups incorporated into the Wari political sphere. Excavations on Cerro Mejia and comparisons with elite residences on Cerro Baúl, both located in Moquegua, provide a good example of how houses were used and designed to facilitate asymmetrical power relations in the early Andean Wari Empire.

The Chiriguanas of the Andean foothills (Bolivia) were a constant threat to the Audiencia de Charcas, and several facts suggest that they were also a threat to the Incas themselves. Nevertheless, a critical comparison of XVIth century testimonies and chronicles reveals certain «contradictions» that allow to rethink «the origin» of Chiriguana domination. This paper argues for a recent —even colonial— process of regional domination by the Guaraní speaking groups of the Eastern Charcas frontier.

The Wari Empire was an expansive state that incorporated many groups in the Peruvian Andes ca. AD600-1000. The ruling members of Wari society established asymmetrical relations with many regional polities or replaced them with state officials. In the provincial centers of this powerful empire, state officials interacted with regional leaders. Regional leaders, in many instances, did the same and continued to manage their followers through socio-political interactions as they were subsumed in the Wari political economy. Formal monumental settings for important socio-political relations underpinning the centralization of the Wari state were built in a few provincial areas, and have been interpreted as administrative centers, however socio-political relations crucial to maintaining power and control over many regions were not limited to these monumental centers. Socio-political connections between laborers and administrators would have been important at a number of scales and a complex hierarchy should be present if Wari is a state as many archaeologists suggest. This paper describes the use of space in elite residences at the Wari site of Cerro Mejia and demonstrate that these residential settings were organized around important political activities, such as holding meetings and hosting feasts, and other activities that would have played an important role in establishing and maintaining control of small regional groups incorporated into the Wari political sphere. Excavations on Cerro Mejia and comparisons with elite residences on Cerro Baúl, both located in Moquegua, provide a good example of how houses were used and designed to facilitate asymmetrical power relations in the early Andean Wari Empire.

The Chiriguanas of the Andean foothills (Bolivia) were a constant threat to the Audiencia de Charcas, and several facts suggest that they were also a threat to the Incas themselves. Nevertheless, a critical comparison of XVIth century testimonies and chronicles reveals certain «contradictions» that allow to rethink «the origin» of Chiriguana domination. This paper argues for a recent —even colonial— process of regional domination by the Guaraní speaking groups of the Eastern Charcas frontier.

In this paper, we describe and analyze the U-shaped monumental complexes from the lower Huaura valley known as Chacra Socorro o Huaura Antigua, located in the province of Huarura in the Department of Lima in the north-central coast of Peru. These constructions formed part of a tradition of monumental architecte that extended across the valleys of the central coast during the Early Formative Period (1800 a. C.-900 a. C.). They would have functioned to permit the congregation of large quanties of people in the central plazas bounded by its lateral structures. From the definition and analysis of this architectural pattern, there have arisen a series of explanations about the societies that constructed the complexes. In this article, we discuss these theories through the presentation of the U-shaped architecture in the Huaura Valley and other nearby valleys. All of this permits to generate a diachronic view of the early history of the Huaura valley and its region.

The aim of this paper is to analyze from an anthropological and historical perspective some of the characteristics acquired by the indigenous community of Colalao and Tolombón (current province of Tucumán, Argentina) around the middle of 19th Century.This is, this article considers who were part of the community, what the system of representation was practiced, how the goods of this collective unit were used and administered and, in the light of this data, to discuss and reflect on the meanings of the term «community» within the context of major changes and socio-political, economic and ethnic redefinitions, as was the case during the transition from the colonial era to the republian one.