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Later timing of eating has been associated with higher adiposity among adults and children in several studies, but not all. Moreover, studies in younger children are scarce. Hence, this study investigated the associations of the timing of evening eating with BMI Z -score and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and whether these associations were moderated by chronotype among 627 preschoolers (3-6-year-olds) from the cross-sectional DAGIS survey in Finland. Food intake was measured with 3-d food records, and sleep was measured with hip-worn actigraphy. Three variables were formed to describe the timing of evening eating: (1) clock time of the last eating occasion (EO); (2) time between the last EO and sleep onset; and (3) percentage of total daily energy intake (%TDEI) consumed 2 h before sleep onset or later. Chronotype was assessed as a sleep debt-corrected midpoint of sleep on the weekend (actigraphy data). The data were analysed with adjusted linear mixed effects models. After adjusting for several confounders, the last EO occurring closer to sleep onset (estimate = -0·006, 95 % CI (-0·010, -0·001)) and higher %TDEI consumed before sleep onset (estimate = 0·0004, 95 % CI (0·00003, 0·0007)) were associated with higher WHtR. No associations with BMI Z -score were found after adjustments. Clock time of the last EO was not significantly associated with the outcomes, and no interactions with chronotype emerged. The results highlight the importance of studying the timing of eating relative to sleep timing instead of only as clock time.

We examined the association between parental educational level (PEL) and children's food consumption and nutrient intake in a sample of Finnish 3- to 6-year-old preschoolers ( n 811). The data were obtained from the cross-sectional DAGIS project, conducted in eight municipalities in Finland during 2015-2016. The food consumption and nutrient intake were assessed using food records. The highest educational level of the family was used as the indicator of socio-economic status. Differences in diet by PEL were analysed using a hierarchical linear model adjusted for energy intake. Compared with high PEL, low PEL was associated with a child's lower consumption of fresh vegetables and salads, vegetarian dishes, berries, white bread, blended spread, skimmed milk and ice cream but higher consumption of milk with 1-1·5 % fat content, dairy-based desserts and sugar-sweetened soft drinks. Food consumption was also examined after disaggregating dishes into their ingredients. Low PEL was associated with lower consumption of vegetables, nuts and seeds, berries and fish but higher consumption of red meat. Children in the low PEL, compared with the high PEL group, had a lower intake of protein, fibre, EPA, DHA, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B 6 , folate, vitamin B 12 , vitamin C, potassium, phosphorous, Ca, Mg, Zn and iodine but a higher intake of fat and saturated, trans and MUFA. The observed diet-related disparities highlight the need for policy actions and interventions supporting healthy eating patterns such as high consumption of vegetables, nuts and berries in childhood, paying special attention to those with low PEL.

The validity of grocery purchase data as an indicator of food consumption is uncertain. This paper investigated (1) the associations between food consumption and grocery purchases using automatically accumulated purchase data and (2) whether the strength of the associations differed in certain sub-populations. The participants filled in a FFQ, and a major Finnish retailer issued us with their loyalty-card holders' grocery purchase data covering the 1- and 12-month periods preceding the FFQ. We used gamma statistics to study the association between thirds/quarters of FFQ and grocery purchase data (frequency/amount) separately for eighteen food groups among the 11 983 participants. Stratified analyses were conducted for subgroups based on sex, family structure, educational level, household income and self-estimated share of purchases from the retailer. We also examined the proportion of participants classified into the same, adjacent, subsequent and opposite categories using the FFQ and purchase data. The gammas ranged from 0·12 (cooked vegetables) to 0·75 (margarines). Single households had stronger gammas than two-adult families, and participants with > 60 % of purchases from the retailer had stronger gammas. For most food groups, the proportion of participants classified into the same or adjacent category was > 70 %. Most discrepancies were observed for fresh/cooked vegetables, berries and vegetable oils. Even though the two methods did not categorise all food groups similarly, we conclude that grocery purchase data are able to describe food consumption in an adult population, and future studies should consider purchase data as a resource-saving and moderately valid measure in large samples.

Insufficient vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (S-25(OH)D)0·05 for differences between ethnic groups). In conclusion, high prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency existed among East African women living in Finland, despite higher vitamin D intake than their Finnish peers. Moderate vitamin D3 supplementation was effective in increasing S-25(OH)D in both groups of women, and no ethnic differences existed in the response to supplementation.

The aim was to analyse whether changes in the Healthy Food Intake Index (HFII) during pregnancy are related to gestational diabetes (GDM) risk. The 251 pregnant women participating had a pre-pregnancy BMI≥30 kg/m2 and/or a history of GDM. A 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy for assessment of GDM. A normal OGTT result at first trimester was an inclusion criterion for the study. FFQ collected at first and second trimesters served for calculating the HFII. A higher HFII score reflects higher adherence to the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) (score range 0-17). Statistical methods included Student's t test, Mann-Whitney U test, Fisher's exact test and linear and logistic regression analyses. The mean HFII at first trimester was 10·1 (95 % CI 9·7, 10·4) points, and the mean change from the first to the second trimester was 0·35 (95 % CI 0·09, 0·62) points. The range of the HFII changes varied from -7 to 7. The odds for GDM decreased with higher HFII change (adjusted OR 0·83 per one unit increase in HFII; 95 % CI 0·69, 0·99; P=0·043). In the analysis of the association between HFII-sub-indices and GDM, odds for GDM decreased with higher HFII-Fat change (fat percentage of milk and cheese, type of spread and cooking fats) but it was not significant in a fully adjusted model (P=0·058). Dietary changes towards the NNR during pregnancy seem to be related to a lower risk for GDM.

There is a need for food-based solutions for preventing vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D3 (D3) is mainly used in fortified food products, although the production of vitamin D2 (D2) is more cost-effective, and thus may hold opportunities. We investigated the bioavailability of D2 from UV-irradiated yeast present in bread in an 8-week randomised-controlled trial in healthy 20-37-year-old women (n 33) in Helsinki (60°N) during winter (February-April) 2014. Four study groups were given different study products (placebo pill and regular bread=0 µg D2 or D3/d; D2 supplement and regular bread=25 µg D2/d; D3 supplement and regular bread=25 µg D3/d; and placebo pill and D2-biofortified bread=25 µg D2/d). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 (S-25(OH)D2) and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (S-25(OH)D3) concentrations were measured at baseline, midpoint and end point. The mean baseline total serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (S-25(OH)D=S-25(OH)D2+S-25(OH)D3) concentration was 65·1 nmol/l. In repeated-measures ANCOVA (adjusted for baseline S-25(OH)D as total/D2/D3), D2-bread did not affect total S-25(OH)D (P=0·707) or S-25(OH)D3 (P=0·490), but increased S-25(OH)D2 compared with placebo (P<0·001). However, the D2 supplement was more effective than bread in increasing S-25(OH)D2 (P<0·001). Both D2 and D3 supplementation increased total S-25(OH)D compared with placebo (P=0·030 and P=0·001, respectively), but D2 supplementation resulted in lower S-25(OH)D3 (P<0·001). Thus, D2 from UV-irradiated yeast in bread was not bioavailable in humans. Our results support the evidence that D2 is less potent in increasing total S-25(OH)D concentrations than D3, also indicating a decrease in the percentage contribution of S-25(OH)D3 to the total vitamin D pool.

Increased vitamin D fortification of dairy products has increased the supply of vitamin D-containing products with different vitamin D contents on the market in Finland. The authors developed a ninety-eight-item FFQ with eight food groups and with a question on supplementation to assess dietary and supplemental vitamin D and Ca intakes in Finnish women (60ºN). The FFQ was validated in subgroups with different habitual vitamin D supplement use (0-57·5 µg/d) against the biomarker serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (S-25(OH)D) and against 3-d food records (FR) (n 29-67). Median total vitamin D intake among participants was 9·4 (range 1·6-30·5) µg/d. Spearman's correlations for vitamin D and Ca ranged from 0·28 (P 0·146, FFQ v. S-25(OH)D, persons not using supplements) to 0·75 (P<0·001, FFQ v. FR, supplement use included). The correlations between the FFQ and S-25(OH)D concentrations improved within increasing supplement intake. The Bland-Altman analysis showed wide limits of agreement between FFQ and FR: for vitamin D between -7·8 and 8·8 µg/d and for Ca between -938 and 934 mg/d, with mean differences being 0·5 µg/d and 2 mg/d, respectively. The triads method was used to calculate the validity coefficients of the FFQ for vitamin D, resulting in a mean of 1·00 (95 % CI 0·59, 1·00) and a range from 0·33 to 1·00. The perceived variation in the estimates could have been avoided with a longer FR period and larger number of participants. The results are comparable with earlier studies, and the FFQ provides a reasonable estimation of vitamin D and Ca intakes.

Maternal nutritional status during pregnancy has been reported to be associated with childhood asthma and atopic disease. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children has reported associations between reduced umbilical cord Fe status and childhood wheeze and eczema; however, follow-up was short and lung function was not measured. In the present study, the associations between maternal Fe status during pregnancy and childhood outcomes in the first 10 years of life were investigated in a subgroup of 157 mother-child pairs from a birth cohort with complete maternal, fetal ultrasound, blood and child follow-up data. Maternal Fe intake was assessed using FFQ at 32 weeks of gestation and Hb concentrations and serum Fe status (ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor and TfR-F (transferrin receptor:ferritin) index) were measured at 11 weeks of gestation and at delivery. Maternal Fe intake, Hb concentrations and serum Fe status were found to be not associated with fetal or birth measurements. Unit increases in first-trimester maternal serum TfR concentrations (OR 1.44, 95% CI 1.05, 1.99) and TfR-F index (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.10, 1.82) (i.e. decreasing Fe status) were found to be associated with an increased risk of wheeze, while unit increases in serum ferritin concentrations (i.e., increasing Fe status) were found to be associated with increases in standardised mean peak expiratory flow (PEF) (β 0.25, 95% CI 0.09, 0.42) and forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) (β 0.20, 95% CI 0.08, 0.32) up to 10 years of age. Increasing maternal serum TfR-F index at delivery was found to be associated with an increased risk of atopic sensitisation (OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.02, 1.79). The results of the present study suggest that reduced maternal Fe status during pregnancy is adversely associated with childhood wheeze, lung function and atopic sensitisation, justifying further studies on maternal Fe status and childhood asthma and atopic disease.

Fatty acids (FA) are known to have a number of immunological effects and, accordingly, may play a role in the development of allergic diseases. We investigated the effect of maternal intake of FA during pregnancy on the risk of allergic rhinitis, wheeze and atopic eczema in children aged 5 years. The present study analysed data from the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Nutrition Study, a population-based birth cohort study with a 5-year follow-up. Complete information on maternal diet (assessed by a validated FFQ) and International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood-based allergic outcomes was available for 2441 children. Cox proportional regression and logistic regression were used for the analyses. After adjusting for potential confounding variables, high maternal consumption of butter and butter spreads (hazard ratio (HR) 1.33; 95 % CI 1.03, 1.71) and higher ratio of n-6:n-3 FA (HR 1.37; 95 % CI 1.07, 1.77) during pregnancy were associated with an increased risk of allergic rhinitis in the offspring by 5 years of age. High maternal intakes of total PUFA (HR 0.71; 95 % CI 0.52, 0.96) and α-linolenic FA (HR 0.73; 95 % CI 0.54, 0.98) were associated with a decreased risk of allergic rhinitis. However, these results lost their significance after adjustment for multiple comparisons. Overall, our data suggest that maternal consumption of butter, the ratio of n-6:n-3 FA and intake of PUFA and α-linolenic FA during pregnancy may be potential determinants of allergic rhinitis in the offspring.

The duration of the period of time during which diet should be recorded for sufficiently accurate results on the usual intake of an individual is an especially challenging issue in prospective studies among children. We set out to describe nutrient intake variability in preschoolers and to determine the number of record days required (D) to estimate intake of energy and thirty-two nutrients. The diet and the use of dietary supplements were assessed with three consecutive daily food records including one weekend day in 1639 children participating in the population-based birth cohort of the Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Project (DIPP) in Finland. Variance ratios and D stratified by sex and age groups were calculated for 455 (1-year-old), 471 (3-year-old) and 713 (6-year-old) children (born between 1998 and 2003). Within:between variance ratios and D increase with increasing age, and are slightly higher for girls. Vitamin A, cholesterol, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids, β-carotene and folate intakes require the most replicates. Including supplemental intake has an impact on the variance estimates according to the proportion of supplement users. In the DIPP Nutrition Study with 3 d food records, the correlation coefficients between observed and true intakes of energy and thirty-two nutrients averaged 0·91 in 1-year-old children, 0·79 in 3-year-old children and 0·74 in 6-year-old children. For providing accurate nutrient intake estimates, three replicates of food records are reasonable in 1-year-old children but must be questioned for several nutrients in 3- and 6-year-old children. The accuracy of ranking boys is greater than that for girls.

The aim was to identify the important sources of added sucrose and determinants of high intake, and to evaluate what impact a high proportion of energy from added sucrose has on the intake of foods and nutrients. The subjects consisted of children invited to the nutrition study within the Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention birth cohort and born in 2001 (n 846). Of these, 471 returned 3 d food records at 3 years of age. The average daily intake of added sucrose was 35 (sd 17) g (11.3 % of energy intake) and that of total sucrose was 41 (sd 18) g (13.3 % of energy intake). Sucrose added by manufacturers accounted for 82 %, naturally occurring sucrose for 15 % and sucrose added by consumers for 3 % of the total sucrose. Juice drinks, yoghurt/cultured milks, and chocolate and confectionery were the main contributors to added sucrose intake. Consumption of rye bread, porridge, fresh vegetables, cooked potatoes, skimmed milk, hard cheeses, margarine and fat spread as well as intake of most nutrients decreased across the quartiles of added sucrose (P < 0.05). Being cared for at home, having a father with a vocational school degree, having at least two siblings and a milk-restricted diet increased the risk for a high-sucrose diet. The study implied that a high proportion of added sucrose in the diet had mainly an unfavourable impact on the intake of recommended foods and key nutrients in Finnish children. The rationale for the recommendation to reduce the intake of refined sugars to ensure adequate intakes of nutrients seems reasonable.