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The COVID‐19 pandemic led to the closure of higher educational institutions (HEIs) and affected the teaching learning processes in educational institutions of all levels. The pandemic increased the digital gap of the existing minimal Internet connectivity and access to digital technology. As a result of the impact of the pandemic on education, HEIs in Ghana moved from traditional face‐to‐face classes to remote education or hybrid learning. Therefore, it is important to understand how digital technologies and digital divide influenced teaching and learning in sub‐Saharan Africa. Thus, the purpose of this research was to investigate the strategies universities in Ghana used to overcome the digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic. The study also aimed to explore the challenges and experiences of dealing with the digital divide during the pandemic. Data were collected following a qualitative research design. Thirty‐five in‐depth and semi‐structured interviews (25 teaching faculty and 10 administrators) from two private and three public universities were obtained and analysed via thematic analysis approach. Findings were thematized by challenges of dealing with digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic, provision of affordable Internet connectivity for students, faculty and staff, use of digital technologies and resources for hybrid and remote courses, creation of information communication and technology platforms for students, faculty and administrators, and provision of professional development workshops/trainings on digital skills and knowledge. These results were discussed with the three‐level model of the digital divide framework (school, classroom and student) and the development history of digital infrastructure in sub‐Saharan Africa. By analysing the Ghana HEIs' experiences, this study contributes to a balanced understanding of the digital divide issue during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic The COVID‐19 pandemic has led to the closure of higher educational institutions (HEIs) worldwide, including those in sub‐Saharan Africa, and changed learning and teaching process to remote learning in higher education.There is dearth of studies regarding how digital technologies and digital divide influenced teaching and learning progress during the COVID‐19 pandemic in sub‐Saharan Africa. Lack of understanding about the strategies universities in Africa (Ghana) used to overcome the digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic.What this paper adds This study, unlike earlier ones with a similar focus, investigated the strategies higher education institutions in Ghana in sub‐Saharan Africa used to overcome digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic.The results show the following: evidence of students lack of access to affordable Internet bandwidth, adoption of remote education, using digital technologies for hybrid and remote courses, creation of ICT platforms for instructors and students, trainings on digital skills for instructors and students, and challenges of dealing with digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic.Implications for practice and/or policy The paper identifies the instructional strategies HEIs in Ghana used to address and reduce the challenges of digital divide during the COVID‐19 pandemic.The findings were theoretically analysed under a three‐level model of the digital divide in education, proving the utility of this comprehensive approach. Then, they were interpreted concerning the development history of sub‐Saharan Africa to reduce the discursive unbalance in the digital divide studies.The paper makes detailed recommendations on how HEIs can address the effects of digital divide on teaching and learning experience during future disruptions and increase the use of digital technologies and ICT tools in remote/hybrid and or distance learning environment in sub‐Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field of learning analytics has advanced from infancy stages into a more practical domain, where tangible solutions are being implemented. Nevertheless, the field has encountered numerous privacy and data protection issues that have garnered significant and growing attention. In this systematic review, four databases were searched concerning privacy and data protection issues of learning analytics. A final corpus of 47 papers published in top educational technology journals was selected after running an eligibility check. An analysis of the final corpus was carried out to answer the following three research questions: (1) What are the privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics? (2) What are the similarities and differences between the views of stakeholders from different backgrounds on privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics? (3) How have previous approaches attempted to address privacy and data protection issues? The results of the systematic review show that there are eight distinct, intertwined privacy and data protection issues that cut across the learning analytics cycle. There are both cross‐regional similarities and three sets of differences in stakeholder perceptions towards privacy and data protection in learning analytics. With regard to previous attempts to approach privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics, there is a notable dearth of applied evidence, which impedes the assessment of their effectiveness. The findings of our paper suggest that privacy and data protection issues should not be relaxed at any point in the implementation of learning analytics, as these issues persist throughout the learning analytics development cycle. One key implication of this review suggests that solutions to privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics should be more evidence‐based, thereby increasing the trustworthiness of learning analytics and its usefulness. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Research on privacy and data protection in learning analytics has become a recognised challenge that hinders the further expansion of learning analytics.Proposals to counter the privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics are blurry; there is a lack of a summary of previously proposed solutions.What this study contributes Establishment of what privacy and data protection issues exist at different phases of the learning analytics cycle.Identification of how different stakeholders view privacy, similarities and differences, and what factors influence their views.Evaluation and comparison of previously proposed solutions that attempt to address privacy and data protection in learning analytics.Implications for practice and/or policy Privacy and data protection issues need to be viewed in the context of the entire cycle of learning analytics.Stakeholder views on privacy and data protection in learning analytics have commonalities across contexts and differences that can arise within the same context. Before implementing learning analytics, targeted research should be conducted with stakeholders.Solutions that attempt to address privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics should be put into practice as far as possible to better test their usefulness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid increase and use of educational technologies have a significant impact on students' privacy, personal information and metadata in higher education. The past two decades have also witnessed the process where information about students is stored and handled outside premises and control of learning institutions. The personal information about students and their activity while they interact with learning management systems (LMS) and online learning tools is increasing and is stored in cloud computing platforms, software‐as‐a‐service providers and other vendors. There are reported cases where students' personal data and information have been leaked, with possible privacy violations. Although this issue affects all students, it is important to understand the perspectives of culturally diverse students on the balancing of personal data/information and the use of technology integration in higher education. The purpose of this research was to investigate diverse students' perspectives on privacy, control of personal information, confidentiality and technology integration. The study also aimed to examine the challenges and experiences of loss of control over personal data and metadata encroachment, and protection of privacy in online education. Data were collected following a qualitative research design. Forty in‐depth and semi‐structured focus‐group interviews (26 female and 24 male students) from four academic disciplines (Education, Social Sciences, Business, and Health Sciences) in a public university in the United States were obtained and analysed following a constant comparative analysis approach. Findings show evidence of fear and anxiety about data encroachment, challenges from bureaucratic procedures and lack of educational awareness, privacy concerns about LMS and social media. These results contribute to a new understanding regarding diverse students' knowledge, challenges and experiences on how to balance privacy, confidentiality and technology integration in higher education. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Considering the increasing Internet world, where new technologies and mobile computing are interwoven in the use of digital technologies and access to information, balancing students' privacy and technology integration is essential in providing students assurance of their data security and privacy.Few studies have explored diverse students' perspectives on privacy and technology integration that include control of personal information, confidentiality and technology integration. Further, there is a dearth of studies on the challenges and experiences of diverse students regarding the loss of control over personal data and metadata encroachment, and protection of privacy in online education.Although rapid digitalization sparked studies about privacy and data usage, such as the perception of privacy breaches for the purpose of COVID‐19 pandemic control, few studies have also raised privacy issues related to student data usage in higher education institutions (HEIs) in the post‐COVID‐19 context. To realise justice technology integration and data usage in HEIs, students' perspectives on privacy should be examined.What this paper adds The results show the following: fear and anxiety about data encroachment, challenges from bureaucratic procedures and lack of educational awareness, privacy concerns about LMS and social media.The result from this work also illustrates that it would be hard for students to evaluate their privacy risk due to lack of educational opportunity to balance privacy and technologies usage, and the blurred boundaries between LMS and third parties including social media in technology integration.Implications for practice and/or policy The paper identifies how the rapid increase and use of educational technologies have, in many ways, influenced diverse students' personal information and metadata in higher education.The paper makes detail recommendations on how HEIs can address the issue of balancing privacy and technology integration as an essential strategy by providing students assurance of their data security and privacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maintaining students' privacy in higher education, an integral aspect of learning design and technology integration, is not only a matter of policy and law but also a matter of design ethics. Similar to faculty educators, learning designers in higher education play a vital role in maintaining students' privacy by designing learning experiences that rely on online technology integration. Like other professional designers, they need to care for the humans they design for by not producing designs that infringe on their privacy, thus, not causing harm. Recognizing that widely used instructional design models are silent on the topic and do not address ethical considerations such as privacy, we focus this paper on how design ethics can be leveraged by learning designers in higher education in a practical manner, illustrated through authentic examples. We highlight where the ethical responsibility of learning designers comes into the foreground when maintaining students' privacy and well‐being, especially in online settings. We outline an existing ethical decision‐making framework and show how learning designers can use it as a call to action to protect the students they design for, strengthening their ethical design capacity. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Existing codes of ethical standards from well‐known learning design organizations call upon learning designers to protect students' privacy without clear guidance on how to do so.Design ethics within learning design is often discussed in abstract ways with principles that are difficult to apply.Most, if not all, design models that learning design professionals have learned are either silent on design ethics and/or do not consider ethics as a valid dimension, thus, making design ethics mostly excluded from learning design graduate programs.Practical means for engaging in ethical design practice are scarce in the field.What this paper adds A call for learning designers in higher education to maintain and protect students' privacy and well‐being, strengthening their ethical design capacity.A demonstration of how to use a practical ethical decision‐making framework as a designerly tool in designing for learning to maintain and protect students' privacy and well‐being.Authentic examples—in the form of vignettes—of ethical dilemmas/issues that learning designers in higher education could face, focused on students' privacy.Methods—using a practical ethical decision‐making framework—for learning design professionals in higher education, grounded in the philosophy of designers as the guarantors of designs, to be employed to detect situations where students' privacy and best interests are at risk.A demonstration of how learning designers could make stellar design decisions in service to the students they design for and not to the priorities of other design stakeholders.Implications for practice and/or policy Higher education programs/institutions that prepare/employ learning designers ought to treat the topics of the designer's responsibility and design ethics more explicitly and practically as one of the means to maintain and protect students' privacy, in addition to law and policies.Learning designers in higher education ought to hold a powerful position in their professional practice to maintain and protect students' privacy and well‐being, as an important aspect of their ethical design responsibilities.Learning designers in higher education ought to adopt a design thinking mindset in order to protect students' privacy by (1) challenging ideas and assumptions regarding technology integration in general and (2) detecting what is known in User Experience (UX) design as "dark patterns" in online course design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technology integration in higher education (HE) has brought immense innovation. While research is investigating the benefits of leveraging, through learning analytics, the data created by the greater presence of technology in HE, it is also analysing the privacy implications of vast universes of data now at the fingertips of HE administrators. This paper argues that student privacy challenges linked to technology integration occur not only within but also beyond learning environments, namely at the enterprise level. By analysing the UK and US legal frameworks surrounding how HE institutions respond to parents demanding disclosure of their adult children's personal data in the event of mental health crises, this paper offers an example of real and complex privacy issues, often overlooked by interdisciplinary inquiry, that exist in the 'interstitial space' between HE technology and privacy law. The purpose of conducting a comparative analysis was to demonstrate that countries with different privacy regimes are similarly ill‐equipped to address certain student privacy issues at the HE enterprise level, leaving HEIs exposed to potential litigation/regulatory risks. The contribution of this work is to invite greater interdisciplinary awareness of, and inquiry into, student privacy beyond learning environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

East African universities are confronted with new opportunities and challenges in responding to societal demands while also handling a growing number of students. Thus, they face challenges in offering quality education due to limited learning resources; outdated pedagogical approaches and teaching and learning practices; and inadequate skills in information and communication technology (ICT). This study is part of an effort to transform university education towards better responding to these educational challenges by providing insights into the existing traditions, practices and resources. The research is an explorative qualitative investigation of students' study practices, emphasising the role and use of ICT: How do students employ ICT in their study practices and what challenges do they face in doing so? The investigation is based on activity theory and the idea that an activity analytically may be divided into three levels: the overall motive, specific goals and the conditions for achieving these goals. This hierarchical structure inspired the data collection approach. Three workshops were conducted with 11 students from three different programmes: computer science (BSc + MSc), business and development studies (BA) and education (BA + MA). The workshops focused on (1) tools and spaces, (2) tasks and collaboration, and (3) aims and visions, reflecting the activity hierarchy. Data were generated using photovoice, presentations and discussions based on the students' photos. The paper applies thematic analysis to identify some of the main issues within each level of analysis: the importance of access to WiFi and electricity; smartphones as the most frequently used tools by students. Tasks are primarily curriculum directed, and different forms of productive collaboration are used; students are dedicated to pursuing their professional careers, but personal strategies and care for the community also feature in their overall aims and visions. This study shows that transforming education entails more than developing strategies and implementing new tools; it involves creating insights into existing practices and giving voice to all stakeholders, including students. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic The pedagogical approach in higher education must change to enhance the employability of university graduates.Implementing change using ICT is rather difficult and requires a systematic and participatory approach.Higher education institutions in the Global South are resource constrained in delivering quality education.What this paper adds An in‐depth understanding of the actual conditions of students' study practices.Practical problems, such as access to WiFi, power and other tools, have an organising impact on students' actual study practices and when and where these practices occur.Using activity theory and photovoice to organise and engage students in providing insights into their study practices.Implications for practice and/or policy Transforming education requires a profound understanding of students' study practices.Access to power and WiFi are basic tools, not add‐ons—that is, not things which are 'nice to have' but 'must‐haves'.The research findings can be used to involve and engage all stakeholders in change processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This systematic review involved reexamining student perceptions of privacy in online, hybrid and technology‐enhanced courses. The research questions included identifying key findings from studies on student privacy. The researchers followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) methodology and completed three rounds of searching for studies, including general searches in Academic Search Complete and Education Research Complete and a targeted search using Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria for the studies were as follows: empirical data on privacy from students' perspectives, higher education setting and published in a top 10 educational technology journal. Once the articles were identified, they were screened and coded independently by two reviewers, and discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. A narrative synthesis outlined three key themes from the original studies: privacy comforts, privacy concerns and privacy compromises. The study concluded with a discussion of the current state of knowledge of student privacy in online, hybrid and technology‐enhanced courses, highlighting the need for greater focus on the balance of students' privacy and technology integration in higher education. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Integration of technology in higher education can pose student privacy concerns.Aspects of online and technology‐supported courses can potentially compromise student privacy.Personal information collected or shared without consent can be an issue.Digital tools and platforms used in online and hybrid courses can be associated with privacy risks.Learning management systems, online exams, virtual simulations and immersive virtual reality can pose privacy risks for students.Previous syntheses have explored technology in higher education but not from the students' perspectives across various course formats.What this paper adds This systematic review provides information about students' perspectives on privacy in online, hybrid and technology‐enhanced courses.It offers a comprehensive analysis of key findings from studies on student privacy, including privacy comforts, concerns and compromises.It shares insight into how students perceive privacy concerns in online, hybrid and technology‐supported learning and how these concerns might be addressed.It emphasizes the need for greater attention to the balance of students' privacy and technology integration in higher education.Implications for practice and/or policy The findings of this paper have important implications for policy and practice in higher education.Institutions should provide clear guidelines and policies on data privacy and security in online, hybrid and technology‐supported learning environments, including transparent information on data collection, storage and usage.Institutions should prioritize the use of secure platforms and tools that protect students' data and privacy.Involving students in decision‐making around technology integration and privacy policies can provide valuable insights and help develop policies that are responsive to their needs.Institutions should provide training and support to students focused on digital literacy and data privacy to empower them to take ownership of their privacy and security in online and technology‐supported learning environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African ideas, science, technology, scholarship and worldviews have been disproportionately displaced and marginalized in relevant global dialogues. In academic circles, African methods of knowing have been questioned, undervalued, mocked, misconstrued, and disregarded, causing apprehension. These negative attitudes are internalized via the educational system, stifling agency and conditioning African learners to rely on technology from outside sources, resulting in the exteriorization of innovation and creativity. African inventiveness becomes "African magic" with no real desire to interrogate, explain, or grasp its basic mechanics. This article contends that technology and creative imaginations exist in African societies. The task, however, remains the exploration and integration of African knowledge systems into higher education. The study aims to demonstrate how the interaction of two components of traditional African education—a sense of community and informal learning—could assist in the embrace, facilitation, and mainstreaming of marginalized African technologies. Although the paper may appear eclectic, it is intended to conscientiously push the paradigm that technology has been integral to African education. Regardless of Africa's technical challenges, salvation does not lie in excessive external reliance but rather in investing and building on Indigenous African knowledges/practices in order to establish an African technological identity. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic: African dependency on foreign technology.Lack of interest in African science and technology.Lack of African technological identity.Low technology penetration in African higher education.What this paper adds: The need to explore African science and technology.Mind‐set change towards African science and technology.Mainstreaming African achievements in science and technology.Implications for practice and/or policy: Indigenization of science and technology.Indigenous empowerment.Exploring alternate ways of knowing.Changing perspectives on science and technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty years after its inauguration, the information communication and technology for accelerated development (ICT4AD) policy intended to transform Ghana into an information and technology‐driven high‐income economy through digital education has been unsuccessful. In this digital era, young adults' attachment to technological tools is anticipated to expedite technological adoption in the education sector. Still, there are less promising indicators of realizing this expectation because of situational factors that curtail technology usage and adoption in higher education (HE). It is estimated that the adoption of technology in HE will aid Ghana in using ICT as its engine of growth. This paper gauges the progress of the ICT4AD policy after two decades, presents an intricate account of why technology integration in HE in Ghana is still in its infancy and proposes interventions for sustaining and advancing the objectives of the ICT4AD policy. Drawing from an extensive review of literature on three conceptualized thematic themes relating to technology (ie, addiction, abduction and adoption), policymakers in education and stakeholders in HE will be able to identify their roles in guaranteeing the success of the promulgated ICT4AD policy. Viable areas of research are also discussed in the study. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic?The promulgated information communication and technology for accelerated development (ICT4AD) policy of Ghana hopes to transform the country into a technology‐driven economy.Technology integration in education and society is still in its infancy in Ghana in this information age.What this paper adds?It gauges the progress of the ICT4AD policy and presents an intricate account of why technology integration in HE in Ghana is still in its infancy and proposes interventions for sustaining and advancing the objectives of the ICT4AD policy.It sounds the alarm that the ICT4AD policy is at its terminal stage and calls on policymakers in education to revisit and revise the policy.It identifies the main factors curtailing effective technology integration in Ghana.It suggests promising steps for Ghana to adopt technology as its engine of growth.Implications of this study for practice and/or policyIt provides information to education practitioners and relevant school stakeholders on how to effectively adopt technology to develop 21st‐century skills among learners.It explores the potential channels for policymakers in education to revisit and reinvest in the ICT4AD policy for the successful attainment of the policy objectives.It calls on countries with similar contexts like Ghana to adopt a multifaceted approach to drive ICT initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many academic disciplines are now experiencing a process of "greening" as scholars seek to cultivate an ecocritical awareness within disciplinary scholarship, Neil Selwyn notes that such ecocritical concerns rarely feature in the field of educational technology. In this paper, I bring Selwyn's call for ecocritical awareness in the field of educational technology into conversation with emerging scholarly discussions in the fields of ecojustice ethics, ecojustice education, and information and communications technology sustainability. In so doing, I expand the existing conversation about the environmental impact of educational technology consumption to argue that the process of cultivating an ecocritical awareness in the field of educational technology requires refining the discipline's focus to include the full lifespan of educational technology devices and the global inequities that feature during the production and disposal of these devices. Practitioner NotesWhat is already known about this topic Despite substantive scholarship recognizing the environmental impact of the globalized digital technology supply chain, the field of educational technology has minimally considered the ecojustice implications of the material nature of educational technology devices when examining the environmental impact of these devices.What this paper adds In this paper, I argue that the reason why the field of educational technology has overlooked the environmental impact of device production and disposal is because of its almost exclusive focus on device use. I argue that cultivating an ecocritical awareness in the field of educational technology requires the discipline to expand its focus beyond device use in two ways: (a) to include device production and disposal and (b) to consider the global injustices that occur in these parts of the digital technology life cycle. As such, I build upon Selwyn and others to argue for the cultivation of ecojustice concerns in emerging conversations about ethics in the field of educational technology.Implications for practice and/or policy The process of cultivating ecocritical awareness within the field of educational technology requires expanding the scope and focus of the discipline beyond device use to include device production and disposal. The planned obsolescence behind these devices maximizes the environmental harm at these stages and the global injustices associated with them. Educators and educational leaders seeking to employ educational technology in ethical and environmentally sustainable ways must consider these implications from the global digital technology supply chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A burgeoning literature, policy landscape, and set of practice resources and guidelines have emerged around ethical educational technology development and implementation, particularly in the context of data or artificial intelligence informed tools. However, while these resources provide valuable tools to support navigation of the ethical landscape, they suffer from some limitations. These include a focus on coarse‐grained, clear cut cases; a lack of attention to dilemmas and tensions; and a potential focus on procedural aspects of ethics, rather than our moment‐to‐moment ethics‐in‐action. This paper provides a case study description, using a reflective design case to provide a more textured micro‐ethics. The case approach, its exemplification as a tool for micro‐ethics, and the features of interest in our particular case each provide valuable tools for the educational technology community. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicEthical concerns are central to the design, development and implementation of educational technologies (edtech).A range of guidelines, policies and law exist, providing principles that guide edtech research and use.However existing resources tend to reflect coarse procedural aspects of ethics, providing a navigation aid, but not a defined path, in ethical edtech practice.What this paper addsThis paper provides a novel method—a reflective design case—for describing and exploring micro‐ethics in edtech.Through applying this method, we demonstrate that micro‐ethical analyses of 'ethics‐in‐action' help to uncover the nuanced decisions we make in ethical conduct.This exemplification provides insight into a specific body of work on writing analytics, of relevance to the field.Implications for practice and/or policyPolicy and guidance for ethical conduct should make use of cases that demonstrate how such ethical materials are drawn on in ethical conduct, and as demonstrations of micro‐ethics in action.Practitioners—those who design, develop, and implement edtech—may use the method developed to explore and share their own cases to support their work.Practitioners—those who design, develop, and implement edtech—may draw on shared reflective design cases in learning regarding navigating application of procedural ethics and developing ethics‐in‐action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 360‐degree video offers a novel visual experience for education. This immersive experience not only amplifies students' engagement and curiosity but also assists them in delving into and comprehending intricate concepts from a multitude of viewpoints. Given its novelty, there is a relative shortage of studies on 360‐degree video's overall effectiveness in education. This study conducted a meta‐analysis of 49 peer‐reviewed articles. Utilizing a random‐effects model to compute effect sizes (ES), the results showed that 360‐degree videos have a moderate impact on both learning (Hedges' g = 0.525) and non‐cognitive outcomes (Hedges' g = 0.527), with notable heterogeneity observed across the studies. Furthermore, the studies were coded to examine the moderating effects of their characteristics, such as the level of education, the field of education, the display types, experimental design, the sample size and the control treatment. The findings suggest a medium effect of 360‐degree videos on knowledge acquisition and a smaller effect on task performance. In terms of non‐cognitive outcomes, the least impact was noted in the domain of social and emotional qualities, while the most significant impact was in attitudes and beliefs. Based on these findings, the study proposed future research directions focusing on enhancing teaching strategies and improving research designs concerning the use of 360‐degree videos in educational contexts.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic 360‐degree videos in education are notable for their authenticity, flexibility and accessibility. They enhance learners' sense of presence, deepen understanding of subject matter and improve non‐cognitive skills. 360‐degree videos have produced mixed results on learning and non‐cognitive outcomes. What this paper adds 360‐degree videos have a medium effect on students' learning outcomes (g = 0.0.525) and non‐cognitive outcomes (g = 0.0.527). Significant heterogeneity is observed in the effects of 360‐degree videos on both learning outcomes and non‐cognitive outcomes. In terms of non‐cognitive outcomes, 360‐degree videos have the smallest effect size in the social and emotional qualities domain. Identifying key moderators that influence the effectiveness of 360‐degree videos, including participants' education levels, field of application, sample sizes, display types, experimental designs and control treatment. Implications for practice and/or policy Enhance social and emotional learning with 360‐degree video, and aid in understanding and managing emotional experiences. Develop learning strategies that align with the unique characteristics of different subjects. Teacher‐assisted approaches are encouraged to support learning and teaching in formal educational settings with structured courses. Multimodal data can be collected for analysis in future research to explore the learning process. 360‐degree videos in education are notable for their authenticity, flexibility and accessibility. They enhance learners' sense of presence, deepen understanding of subject matter and improve non‐cognitive skills. 360‐degree videos have produced mixed results on learning and non‐cognitive outcomes. 360‐degree videos have a medium effect on students' learning outcomes (g = 0.0.525) and non‐cognitive outcomes (g = 0.0.527). Significant heterogeneity is observed in the effects of 360‐degree videos on both learning outcomes and non‐cognitive outcomes. In terms of non‐cognitive outcomes, 360‐degree videos have the smallest effect size in the social and emotional qualities domain. Identifying key moderators that influence the effectiveness of 360‐degree videos, including participants' education levels, field of application, sample sizes, display types, experimental designs and control treatment. Enhance social and emotional learning with 360‐degree video, and aid in understanding and managing emotional experiences. Develop learning strategies that align with the unique characteristics of different subjects. Teacher‐assisted approaches are encouraged to support learning and teaching in formal educational settings with structured courses. Multimodal data can be collected for analysis in future research to explore the learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we integrated corpus technology in pre‐service TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) development in corpus technology, termed corpus‐based language pedagogy (CBLP), and highlighted the collaborative effort for knowledge building among participants for TPACK development. The study examined the role of online collaboration in facilitating how pre‐service TESOL teachers developed their CBLP (TPACK in corpus technology) using a learning‐by‐design approach, enacted it in co‐designing lessons, revised their lessons and reflected on their collective knowledge building processes. Using a case study approach involving 33 participants, the study focused on both intra‐ and inter‐group interactions to understand the pre‐service teachers' learning dynamics/changes and unpack the interaction mechanism involved in online collaborative learning. To these ends, we collected data including CBLP group lesson designs, intra‐group data (interviews) and inter‐group peer critical comments and analysed them based on the two stages (comprehension and transformation) of Shulman's pedagogical reasoning. The results suggest that engaging in online collaboration, facilitated by the learning‐by‐design approach, is instrumental in enabling pre‐service teachers to learn corpus technology and expand their repertoire of teaching strategies. Our findings imply that both intra‐ and inter‐group collaboration modes are important to help pre‐service TESOL teachers holistically develop TPACK for language teaching. Similar implications may be applied to other subject‐specific TPACK training.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Teacher preparation programmes play a crucial role in developing pre‐service teachers' technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) TPACK integration into pedagogical practice and subject‐specific professional development opportunities are important for effective teaching, but there is a lack of research on subject‐specific TPACK development (eg, TPACK in language teaching) Online collaborative learning can support TPACK development, but most studies focused on intra‐group interactions with little attention to inter‐group interactions What this paper adds Introduces a new corpus‐based language pedagogy (CBLP) for TESOL teachers to help them develop TPACK in language teaching Presents an innovative two‐step training framework for developing TESOL teachers' TPACK in corpus technology Examines the role of online collaboration in developing pre‐service TESOL teachers' TPACK for teaching with corpus technology through learning by design Provides in‐depth qualitative data analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively to investigate the specific roles that intra‐group and inter‐group interactions play in shaping pre‐service TESOL teachers' CBLP development Develops an analytical framework comprising nine categories (under the comprehension and transformation stages of Shulman's pedagogical reasoning model) to code pre‐service TESOL teachers' TPACK development in corpus technology Finds that intra‐group interactions facilitate both comprehension and transformation stages, while inter‐group interactions predominantly facilitate the transformation stage of CBLP Implications for practice Emphasises hands‐on corpus‐searching skills and guidance on browsing corpora when designing CBLP lessons Encourages both within‐group and between‐group interactions in online collaborative learning to foster TPACK development for using corpus technology in teaching language subjects Considers incorporating similar approaches for developing other subject‐specific TPACK for other teaching subjects Teacher preparation programmes play a crucial role in developing pre‐service teachers' technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) TPACK integration into pedagogical practice and subject‐specific professional development opportunities are important for effective teaching, but there is a lack of research on subject‐specific TPACK development (eg, TPACK in language teaching) Online collaborative learning can support TPACK development, but most studies focused on intra‐group interactions with little attention to inter‐group interactions Introduces a new corpus‐based language pedagogy (CBLP) for TESOL teachers to help them develop TPACK in language teaching Presents an innovative two‐step training framework for developing TESOL teachers' TPACK in corpus technology Examines the role of online collaboration in developing pre‐service TESOL teachers' TPACK for teaching with corpus technology through learning by design Provides in‐depth qualitative data analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively to investigate the specific roles that intra‐group and inter‐group interactions play in shaping pre‐service TESOL teachers' CBLP development Develops an analytical framework comprising nine categories (under the comprehension and transformation stages of Shulman's pedagogical reasoning model) to code pre‐service TESOL teachers' TPACK development in corpus technology Finds that intra‐group interactions facilitate both comprehension and transformation stages, while inter‐group interactions predominantly facilitate the transformation stage of CBLP Emphasises hands‐on corpus‐searching skills and guidance on browsing corpora when designing CBLP lessons Encourages both within‐group and between‐group interactions in online collaborative learning to foster TPACK development for using corpus technology in teaching language subjects Considers incorporating similar approaches for developing other subject‐specific TPACK for other teaching subjects [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to measure the digital parenting awareness, attitude and self‐efficacy perceptions of parents of children with special needs and to determine whether they differ according to the disability status of their children. A total of 180 parents of children with special needs from various regions of Turkey participated in the study. This study was conducted using a relational screening model. Data were collected using digital parenting awareness, attitude and self‐efficacy perception scales and analysed using descriptive and correlational statistical methods. The findings revealed that parents had moderate levels of awareness, positive attitudes and self‐efficacy perceptions regarding digital parenting, but these variables showed significant differences according to the disability status of the children. In particular, parents of children with learning disabilities had higher digital parenting awareness than parents of other disability groups. In addition, a positive and significant relationship was found between parents' digital parenting awareness, attitudes and self‐efficacy perception. The findings of this study are important and contribute to both the practical and theoretical perspectives. In applicable terms, this study revealed the needs and expectations of parents of children with special needs regarding digital parenting. Theoretically, this is a rare study that examines the situation and experiences of parents with children with special needs in digital parenting. This study emphasizes the need for further research on digital parenting.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Existing research underscores the importance of digital parenting in the contemporary era, highlighting the need for parents to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by technology in child‐rearing. Parental self‐efficacy in managing digital resources has been identified as a crucial factor in promoting children's effective and safe use of technology. Positive parental attitudes towards technology have been associated with healthier digital habits and development in children. What this paper adds This study contributes to the literature by specifically focusing on parents of children with special needs and recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities they face in the realm of digital parenting. Findings revealed that parents of children with learning disabilities exhibit higher levels of digital parenting awareness, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions and support for different disability groups. The positive and significant relationship identified between digital parenting awareness, attitudes and self‐efficacy underscores the holistic nature of these factors and highlights the potential impact of comprehensive digital parenting programs. Implications for practice and/or policy Develop targeted digital parenting support programmes that address the specific needs of parents with children with special needs, considering the variations among different disability groups. Advocates of inclusive education policies that incorporate digital parenting education as a vital component, recognizing its significance in the overall well‐being. Recognize the role of both mothers and fathers in digital parenting and design interventions that consider the unique perspectives and challenges faced by each gender. Facilitate collaboration between digital parenting experts and special education professionals to create comprehensive resources and training materials that cater to the diverse needs of children with special needs. Conduct longitudinal studies to assess the long‐term impact of digital parenting interventions on the development, well‐being, and digital literacy of children with special needs. This can inform the refinement of future programs and policies in this domain. Existing research underscores the importance of digital parenting in the contemporary era, highlighting the need for parents to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by technology in child‐rearing. Parental self‐efficacy in managing digital resources has been identified as a crucial factor in promoting children's effective and safe use of technology. Positive parental attitudes towards technology have been associated with healthier digital habits and development in children. This study contributes to the literature by specifically focusing on parents of children with special needs and recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities they face in the realm of digital parenting. Findings revealed that parents of children with learning disabilities exhibit higher levels of digital parenting awareness, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions and support for different disability groups. The positive and significant relationship identified between digital parenting awareness, attitudes and self‐efficacy underscores the holistic nature of these factors and highlights the potential impact of comprehensive digital parenting programs. Develop targeted digital parenting support programmes that address the specific needs of parents with children with special needs, considering the variations among different disability groups. Advocates of inclusive education policies that incorporate digital parenting education as a vital component, recognizing its significance in the overall well‐being. Recognize the role of both mothers and fathers in digital parenting and design interventions that consider the unique perspectives and challenges faced by each gender. Facilitate collaboration between digital parenting experts and special education professionals to create comprehensive resources and training materials that cater to the diverse needs of children with special needs. Conduct longitudinal studies to assess the long‐term impact of digital parenting interventions on the development, well‐being, and digital literacy of children with special needs. This can inform the refinement of future programs and policies in this domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upvotes serve important purposes in online social annotation environments. However, limited studies have explored the influential factors affecting peer upvoting in online collaborative learning. In this study, we analysed the factors influencing students' upvotes received from their peers as 91 participants utilized Perusall, an online social annotation system, for collaborative reading. The participants were asked to collaboratively annotate 29 reading materials in a semester. We collected student reading behaviours and analysed their annotations with a text‐mining tool of Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC). Moreover, conditional inference tree was used to determine the relative importance of explanatory factors to the upvotes students received. The results showed that the high‐upvote group made significantly more annotations, posted more responses to others' annotations and displayed fewer negative emotions in annotations than those who did not receive upvotes. The two groups of students had no significant differences in the upvotes given to others, as well as cognitive activities and positive emotions involved in annotations. Moreover, the number of annotations was the determining factor in predicting the upvotes that one could receive in social annotation activities. This study has significant practical implications regarding providing interventions in social annotation‐based collaborative reading.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Social annotations enhance students' reading experience, facilitate knowledge sharing and collaboration, promote high‐quality learning interactions and ultimately lead to improved performance. In social annotation environments, receiving upvotes from peers is not only a type of feedback but also a form of motivation, social interaction and social validation. No study has explored the influential factors in peer upvoting within social annotation‐based learning. What this paper adds This study was the first to examine social annotations through the lens of the community of inquiry framework. We investigated the relationships between students' cognitive and social presence in their annotations and the upvotes they received in an online social annotation environment. Our study revealed the strategies for obtaining upvotes from peers in social annotation‐based learning environments. Implications for practice and/or policy The high‐upvote group made significantly more annotations, posted more responses to others' annotations and displayed fewer negative emotions in annotations compared to the low‐upvote group. The two groups of students did not show significant differences in the upvotes they gave to others or in the cognitive activities and positive emotions involved in annotations. The number of annotations was the primary factor predicting the number of upvotes received in the collaborative reading. This study could inform the design of future online social annotation systems to better support collaborative learning and peer interaction. Social annotations enhance students' reading experience, facilitate knowledge sharing and collaboration, promote high‐quality learning interactions and ultimately lead to improved performance. In social annotation environments, receiving upvotes from peers is not only a type of feedback but also a form of motivation, social interaction and social validation. No study has explored the influential factors in peer upvoting within social annotation‐based learning. This study was the first to examine social annotations through the lens of the community of inquiry framework. We investigated the relationships between students' cognitive and social presence in their annotations and the upvotes they received in an online social annotation environment. Our study revealed the strategies for obtaining upvotes from peers in social annotation‐based learning environments. The high‐upvote group made significantly more annotations, posted more responses to others' annotations and displayed fewer negative emotions in annotations compared to the low‐upvote group. The two groups of students did not show significant differences in the upvotes they gave to others or in the cognitive activities and positive emotions involved in annotations. The number of annotations was the primary factor predicting the number of upvotes received in the collaborative reading. This study could inform the design of future online social annotation systems to better support collaborative learning and peer interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of Perusall, a social annotation tool, on an online postgraduate course conducted over two semesters at an Australian university. We examine the connection between students' pre‐class engagement and learning outcomes, utilizing both secondary data from Perusall platform and primary data through a survey. The findings indicate that pre‐class social annotations have a positive impact on students' performance on post‐class assessments. Notably, English as an Additional Language students with low English proficiency achieve comparable results in Perusall as those with high English proficiency. Additionally, the study identifies key aspects of social annotation that students highly value, providing insights for future implementation. Overall, this study highlights the potential of social annotation tools like Perusall to improve pre‐class engagement and enhance learning outcomes. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Student engagement with pre‐class activities is critical to their learning outcomes.The integration of social annotation tools for completing pre‐class reading has become progressively prevalent among teachers.The use of social annotation tools for reading and annotating has been found to have a positive influence on students' motivation, interactions, and academic performance.What this paper adds Online social annotation on lecture content has a short‐term positive impact on subsequent assessments, indicating that it is an effective way to engage students in pre‐class learning and improve their understanding and retention of course material.English as an Additional Language (EAL) students of varying levels of English proficiency achieve comparable results in social annotation assignments, highlighting the potential of this tool to provide an equitable learning experience for all students regardless of their language abilities.Social annotation activities promote a strong social presence with cohesive communication, positively impacting online learning's cognitive presence. This highlights the significance of collaborative learning and social interaction in online education, and the potential of social annotation tools to create an engaging and supportive learning environment.Students prefer receiving feedback from teachers within a Community of Inquiry (CoI) rather than through traditional modes of direct instruction or conversation initiation, highlighting the importance of teaching presence in refining their cognitive and social presences, and ultimately enhancing the quality of their learning experience.Implications for practice and/or policy This study provides practical suggestions for designing pre‐class learning activities that build upon pre‐class lessons, helping teachers to optimize students' learning experiences and outcomes.It sheds light on using inclusive and collaborative assessments as an effective way to enhance engagement and performance of EAL students.To cultivate a productive CoI within online educational contexts, teachers need to prioritize personalized feedback to students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has shown that even though standardized financial education has gained prevalence to promote financial literacy over the past decade, it has had little effect on personal financial planning. The present study used a randomized control trial to examine the effectiveness of a Python‐based personalized financial projection on young working adults in Hong Kong, to examine if and how this approach improves their financial planning. Participants assigned to the experiment group received standardized financial education and Python‐based financial projections, while those in the control group only received standardized financial education. The assessment based on the two‐wave data showed that Python‐based financial projection promoted future time perspectives, reduced temporal discounting, and improved financial planning via the full mediation of promoting financial attitudes. Although numerous applications for personal financial planning exist (such as Wallet, Walnut, Monefy, and Money View), our Python‐based financial projection stands out as the pioneering solution tailored for the hands‐on manipulation of programming code to effectively manage personal finances. Our findings suggest a new track to upgrade personalized financial projection and standardized financial education and contribute generously to the development of personal finance education. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Standardized financial education promotes objective financial knowledge.Standardized financial education has a limited effect on personal financial planning.Classical personalized financial projection promotes personal financial planning, but the effect is small.What this paper adds Introduction of a novel Python‐based personalized financial projection by manipulating projection code.The evidence that Python‐based personalized financial projection more strongly improves personal financial planning, compared to the classical personalized financial projection.The evidence why Python‐based personalized financial projection can improve personal financial planning.Implications for practice and/or policy Facilitating engagement of young working adults with personalized finance planning through the use of a Python‐based intervention.Integrating Python‐based personalized financial projection into standardized financial education in the school setting.Using Python as the platform to design more topic‐specific financial education module. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning with digital games has gained considerable popularity. While digital game‐based learning has the potential to improve learners' language learning achievement, engagement and motivation, there still exists a gap when it comes to providing effective feedback to learners within these games. Conventional digital games generally provide learners with immediate error correction, which could be of less help to learners when learning complex language content, such as grammar. In this study, a metalinguistic corrective feedback‐based digital gaming approach is proposed. Moreover, an experiment was conducted to explore how digital games, combined with metalinguistic corrective feedback, affect novice English learners' grammar learning achievement, as well as their perceptions of learning motivation, self‐efficacy and flow experience during learning. Lag sequential analysis was also applied to identify differences in the behavioural patterns of the two groups. A total of 76 university students participated in this study. The experimental group learned the target grammar via digital games combined with metalinguistic corrective feedback, whereas the control group learned with digital games combined with regular feedback, which is immediate error correction. The results suggest that metalinguistic corrective feedback has a positive impact on students' grammar learning, and benefits students who have lower initial intrinsic motivation and self‐efficacy. Different feedback types also lead to diverse learning behaviours. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Feedback has substantial potential within the domain of digital game‐based learning.Proper instructional theories and strategies should be considered when designing digital games to guide language learners to engage in meaningful learning.What this paper adds Feedback that directs learners to rectify errors by emphasizing grammatical rules and language structures is referred to as metalinguistic corrective feedback. This study proposed a metalinguistic corrective feedback‐based digital gaming approach to explore the efficacy of such feedback in digital games.In addition to learning outcomes, learners' learning behaviour patterns were also recorded and analysed in this study.Implications for practice and/or policy It is potentially worth integrating metalinguistic corrective feedback into digital games to facilitate language learners' learning performances and perceptions.Metalinguistic corrective feedback has the potential to support learners with lower self‐efficacy and motivation to learn complicated language content.Future research can integrate different feedback models into digital games and investigate their effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental rotation is the ability to mentally rotate two‐dimensional and three‐dimensional objects in one's mind. Previous studies have examined the relationship between mental rotation abilities and embodied cognition. However, conflicting findings underscore the necessity for further investigation. This study aims to investigate how different levels of embodiment in mental rotation training affect mental rotation training. Three versions of mental rotation training with different levels of embodiment (keyboard, touchpad and augmented reality) were developed for this study. A quasi‐experimental study was conducted with a total of 125 university students to explore how different training versions affect participants' training performances, perception of the usability of the training and mental rotation ability. The results suggest those who used the versions with higher levels of bodily engagement performed better than those who used the versions with lower levels of bodily engagement (p < 0.001). Participants' mental rotation ability also improved significantly after training with the augmented reality (AR1) version compared to those in the keyboard group (p = 0.01). The learning analytics results provide additional clarity by indicating that the participants' mental rotation ability can be predicted by their training performance in the AR condition (p < 0.001). This study has significant implications for the potential of using embodied AR training to improve mental rotation ability. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicMental rotation ability is a malleable trait that can be improved through repeated and long‐term game‐based training.Short‐term training using digital games has limited impacts on mental rotation ability.Mental rotation abilities are linked to our bodily interactions with the physical world.What this paper addsInvestigates how different levels of bodily engagement in a digital game affect short‐term mental rotation training.Investigates how different levels of bodily engagement in a mental rotation training game affect players' game performance and perception of the usability of the game.Investigates if players' performance in a mental rotation training game can predict their mental rotation ability and self‐diagnosed sense of direction.Leverages learning analytics to explain findings generated by traditional research methods.Implications for practice and/or policyLeveraging augmented reality technology in more embodied mental rotation training games can facilitate short‐term gains in mental rotation.Game‐based learning researchers should consider leveraging learning analytics techniques to provide richer and more nuanced explanations for findings generated by traditional research methods.Game performance in effective mental rotation training games can predict mental rotation abilities, thus potentially assessing such abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A lack of evidence bridging the chasm between professional learning practices and commonly used, publicly available resources such as YouTube videos, remains a long‐term challenge in both research and practice. The study introduced a YouTube video club for female early childhood teachers in Hong Kong (N = 29) to view, analyse and discuss STEM teaching videos. The participants wrote reflections and discussed with peers to exchange views on teaching content and strategies. All participants completed pre‐ and post‐intervention surveys reporting their teaching beliefs, and five participants from the experimental group were invited for individual interviews. The questionnaire survey data were analysed using statistical analysis, while the interview data were analysed through inductive thematic analysis. The study, which was pre‐post quasi‐experimental, showed that the video club enhanced teachers' beliefs and attitudes towards professional practices in early childhood education. Qualitative analysis of teacher interviews revealed benefits and constraints of using YouTube videos for professional learning. The study transformed video clubs into a web‐mediated mode using YouTube, Google Classroom and Zoom. The results have implications for the design and implementation of video clubs in teacher learning programmes. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic As the largest and most popular video‐sharing service, YouTube hosts a wide range of freely accessible video types that can be used for professional education in various disciplines.There are worldwide efforts to improve early childhood teachers' ability to teach STEM.Video recordings of classroom observations have been used in the context of video clubs since the 1990s to support teacher learning.What this paper adds We introduced the design of a YouTube video club focusing on STEM teaching, in which the participants were asked to view and analyse video excerpts, write reflection as guided by the facilitator and discuss with peers in groups to exchange views on the teaching content and strategies demonstrated in the video excerpts.We extended prior research on video clubs by transforming video clubs into a fully web‐mediated mode using the technologies of YouTube, Google Classroom and Zoom.This design‐based study evaluated the design of YouTube video club in terms of affording and constraining teachers' professional learning in STEM education.Implications for practice and/or policy Results of this study can inform the design of teacher learning programmes using YouTube videos.YouTube videos can be used in web‐mediated video clubs to enhance teachers' professional beliefs, as well as the pedagogical content knowledge in specific learning domains (eg, STEM).More enhancements should be made to optimize the design of YouTube video club. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High‐immersion virtual reality (VR) is an increasingly valued environment for language learners. Although reading constitutes a core language skill, practicing reading in VR has received little attention. In this between‐subject, quantitative study, 79 intermediate learners of English at a German university were randomly assigned to view an interactive, multimedia‐rich story under two conditions. In the experimental condition, subjects (the VR group) experienced the story using a high‐immersion VR headset. In the comparison condition, subjects (the video group) watched a video recording (ie, screencast) of the same VR experience. In both conditions, the story was presented using identical captions in English, which served as the reading comprehension text. In addition to measuring the impact of VR on reading comprehension, validated questionnaires yielded data on the subjects' intrinsic motivation, sense of presence and cognitive load. The analysis produced several findings. First, t‐tests revealed the VR group was associated with statistically significantly higher reading comprehension scores compared with the video group (p = 0.03). Second, Wilcoxon signed‐rank tests showed that the VR treatment elicited statistically significantly higher levels of motivation (p ≤ 0.0001) and sense of presence (p ≤ 0.0001). Cognitive load was not significantly different between the groups (p = 0.22). Our main implication is that VR can be beneficial for reading practice. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic High‐immersion virtual reality (VR) is engaging and motivational.Engaging students to practice reading is important.Research on practicing reading in VR has received little attention.What this paper adds It examines the effectiveness of using VR for practicing reading.It shows that VR enhances motivation and the sense of presence when reading.Students report equal levels of cognitive load while reading subtitles in VR and reading subtitles in videos.Implications for practice and/or policy Our main implication is that VR can be beneficial for reading practice.VR could be used as a motivational tool to engage students in reading activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to learning effectively and effectively in online learning communities (OLCs), students must be in a secure environment and privacy must be respected. The study aimed to identify privacy violations that university students encounter in OLCs, and identify recommendations and some strategies to implement to ensure privacy at the OLC. A qualitative research method was applied in the study. First, focus group interviews were conducted with a total of 108 students who participated actively in the OLC. After analysing the interview data, a privacy violations report (RPV‐OLC) was prepared at the OLC. According to the RPV‐OLC, a problem description for the Delphi technique was designed and 17 experts were identified for the interview. Delphi panels with experts were completed in 5 months. The content analysis process was used for the data obtained. Students said they encountered information sharing and access, access to information, system/course settings, resistance to negotiations, communication problems and lack of knowledge. On the other hand, experts suggest that different suggestions and strategies could be implemented to ensure privacy in the OLC, such as partial privacy, mutual trust, contextual privacy agreements, role‐based or anonymous identity use, and privacy education. The study focused on defining the concept of privacy and student privacy violations in online learning environments and providing solutions for educators, students and system administrators. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicDigital learning environments pose a threat to the privacy of students.The fact that privacy violations in the OLC can trigger concerns among students has a negative impact on learning processes.There is high interest at the moment in how to plan the most effective teaching in online learning environments—but privacy is being neglected.What this paper addsThis article explains the privacy violations university students encounter at the OLC.This document contains guidelines on how to mitigate and prevent privacy violations in OLC.The results of the study also provide suggestions for privacy protection at the OLC.Implications for practice and/or policyIt is important that the instructors who participate in the OLC are informed about the necessary measures, rules, principles, activities and follow‐up measures to protect their personal privacy.If we can overcome students' concerns about privacy violations at the OLC, we can create more comfortable learning spaces.The aim of learning should not only be to peak performance; the most important responsibility of educators or system administrators is to preserve each student's private space, while at the same time achieving the best performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital games are widely used in education to motivate students for science. Additionally, augmented reality (AR) is increasingly used in education. However, recent research indicates that these technologies might not be equally beneficial for students with different background characteristics. Moreover, students with different backgrounds may differ in their self‐efficacy and interest when playing games and this could lead to differences in performance. Given the increased use of games and immersive technologies in education, it is important to gain a better understanding of the effectiveness of games for different student groups. This study focused on the role of students' socio‐economic status (SES) and examined whether SES was associated with in‐game performance and whether interest and self‐efficacy mediated potential associations between SES and in‐game performance. Since log data are increasingly used to predict learning outcomes and can provide valuable insights into individual behaviour, in‐game performance was assessed with the use of log data. In total, 276 early secondary school students participated in this study. The results indicate that SES has no direct or indirect effect through self‐efficacy and interest on in‐game performance. However, a lower self‐efficacy increased the likelihood to drop out of the game. These findings suggest that students from different socio‐economic backgrounds are equally interested and self‐efficacious while playing the game and that their performance is not affected by their background. The affordances of AR as an immersive learning environment might be motivating enough to help mitigate possible SES differences in students. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Digital games are an effective tool to increase motivation and learning outcomes of students.Students' self‐efficacy and situational interest influence learning outcomes and in‐game performance.It is unclear whether digital games are equally effective for students with different socio‐economic status.What this paper adds Socio‐economic status (SES) of students does not affect in‐game performance.Students with different SES are equally interested and self‐efficacious.Lower self‐efficacy and lower school track influence the likelihood of dropout.Implications for practice and/or policy Socio‐economic status does not fortify the possible performance differences between students and games can be utilized as a learning tool that motivates all students equally.There are students who do not optimally benefit when games are implemented in education and who may need additional support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces an innovative approach to improving speaking proficiency among Korean EFL learners through the use of vlogs, further evaluating their impact on learners' foreign language speaking anxiety (FLSA) and willingness to communicate (WTC). In this semester‐long experiment, 49 university students were divided into an experimental group (n = 25) and a control group (n = 24). The former engaged in vlogging activities, while the latter received traditional instruction devoid of social networking. Data were collected via pre‐ and post‐questionnaires on FLSA and WTC, coupled with pre‐ and posttests assessing speaking skills. Vlogging significantly decreased FLSA and bolstered WTC in Korean EFL learners, demonstrating a marked improvement when contrasted with the control group. Additionally, the experimental group, engaged in vlogging, displayed superior advancement in vocabulary, comprehension, fluency and task proficiency. However, no discernible enhancements were observed in speaking accuracy when compared to the control group. With the evidence of reduced anxiety, increased communication willingness and enhanced speaking proficiency in the vlogging group, this study provides a concrete foundation for EFL teachers to consider integrating vlogging and similar social media‐based activities into language instruction. This approach could contribute to creating more engaging and comfortable learning environments, aiding learners in overcoming affective barriers and improving their language skills. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Prior research in second language acquisition probed the impact of social media on diverse language learning areas: vocabulary, intercultural learning, speaking skills, pronunciation and writing skills.Social media‐integrated language learning demonstrated potential in enhancing oral proficiency among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners.Limited research exists exploring the influence of social media, especially vlogging, on EFL learners' speaking skills and affective factors such as Willingness to Communicate (WTC) and speaking anxiety.What this paper adds This study demonstrates that a learning environment cultivated via social media, particularly vlogging, improves speaking proficiency and positively influences affective factors like Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety (FLSA) and WTC.The findings suggest that social media‐integrated speaking activities, specifically vlogging, offer a beneficial and effective pedagogical strategy to ameliorate speaking proficiency, FLSA, and WTC in supportive and non‐intimidating contexts.Implications for practice and/or policy This study offers crucial insights for EFL teachers planning courses to enhance speaking proficiency:The integration of vlogging and similar social media‐based activities into language instruction is strongly supported by the evidence of reduced anxiety, increased communication willingness and enhanced speaking proficiency in the vlogging group. This study provides a concrete foundation for such innovative approaches.The creation of an engaging, interactive and stress‐free learning environment is essential, enabling learners to practice speaking English without anxiety. This approach can also aid learners in overcoming affective barriers and enhancing their language skills.EFL educators should prioritize improving key attitudinal factors, such as anxiety and WTC. These factors significantly contribute to the holistic development of oral proficiency.When incorporating social media‐based speaking activities like vlogging, teachers' targeted feedback on recurring learner mistakes can foster improvements in speaking accuracy.EFL teachers must recognize their critical role in nurturing a supportive, non‐intimidating environment, paving the way for learners to effectively enhance their speaking proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Writing is a fundamental skill linked closely with academic achievement, day‐to‐day communication, formal negotiations, and more. However, due to their lack of contextual experience, learning to write has been a demanding and complex cognitive process for most learners. As a result, learners struggle to exhibit positive learning behaviours and cognitive engagement in writing, let alone embrace deep and autonomous learning. To solve these problems, in the present study, a spherical video‐based virtual reality (SVVR) learning environment is developed to provide students with a contextual learning experience. Moreover, a peer feedback strategy is used to guide students in deep learning in writing. A quasi‐experimental study was conducted to verify the effectiveness of the proposed approach. A total of 79 students from one primary school in southeast China were recruited. The students were assigned to either the experimental group (EG) exposed to the peer‐feedback‐based SVVR (PF‐SVVR) approach or the control group (CG) exposed to the conventional SVVR (C‐SVVR) approach. The results show that PF‐SVVR had more positive effects than C‐SVVR in terms of students' writing performance, cognitive engagement and autonomous learning tendency. In addition, the PF‐SVVR approach was found to be more beneficial for triggering deep learning in writing than the C‐SVVR approach. This study further found that students in the PF‐SVVR group tended to exhibit less disorderly behaviours than those in the C‐SVVR group. Our study contributes to the prior literature by exploring the educational potential of the PF approach in the context of SVVR‐enabled writing learning. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Peer feedback approach provides opportunities for writing learners to regulate their longer‐term cognitive and behavioural competencies.Spherical video‐based virtual reality (SVVR) not only provides an authentic experiential learning context for learners, but it also significantly reduces the cost and the need for the high‐tech capabilities of traditional VR.What this paper adds A peer feedback‐based SVVR approach is proposed to promote students in learning to write.It was found that students' quality of learning to write can be improved by applying the PF‐SVVR approach in writing courses.Implications for practice and/or policy It is worth promoting the application of the peer feedback strategy and SVVR in school settings.The PF‐SVVR approach is useful for promoting young writing learners' cognitive engagement, autonomous learning tendency and deep learning.Further investigations on the effects of employing the PF‐SVVR approach in writing, with anonymous strategies in the process of giving or receiving peer feedback, are expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the COVID‐19 pandemic, the challenges associated with the transition from face‐to‐face to emergency remote education increased concerns about student dropout. Aligned with this concern, this study investigates the impact of the pandemic on the dropout patterns of 3371 undergraduate students from a Brazilian institution. Using data mining and machine learning techniques, we developed predictive dropout models based on student data preceding and succeeding the onset of the pandemic. Through the interpretation and comparison of these models and with the support of statistical and graphical analyses, we identify that the patterns persistently indicate that young students in their initial semesters, characterized by lower income, academic performance, and interaction, remain most susceptible to dropping out. Despite the pandemic leading to an enhanced predictive capability of data regarding student interaction within the virtual learning environment, our analysis revealed a lack of significant variation in dropout patterns. Institutionally, this indicates that a considerable number of dropouts likely encountered challenges in adapting to higher education, both before and throughout the pandemic. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicThe challenges posed by emergency remote learning, implemented during the COVID‐19 pandemic, may exacerbate the dropout problem and change the patterns involved in this phenomenon.Despite being widely used to identify dropout profiles and/or predict at‐risk students, data mining and machine learning techniques have been little explored in the investigation of changes associated with the pandemic context.What this paper addsWe employ data mining and machine learning techniques to construct predictive and interpretable dropout models for the pre‐ and during‐pandemic contexts of a Brazilian institution. Comparing these models, we investigate the impacts of the pandemic on dropout patterns.The pandemic and the shift to emergency remote learning have an enhanced predictive capability of data regarding student interaction within the virtual learning environment.Throughout the pandemic, there was limited variation observed in dropout patterns, consistently highlighting young students in their initial semesters with lower income, academic performance and levels of interaction.Implications for practice and/or policyThis study urges the inclusion of interactional student data in future dropout prediction research, capitalizing on the enhanced predictive power attained through the widespread adoption of virtual learning environments.Institutionally, the dropout patterns from before and during the pandemic suggest that students may be facing difficulties in adapting to higher education. In addition to the need to intensify preventive actions, this work indicates the need to conduct a study specifically targeting first‐semester students to understand their needs better and redesign preventive policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, alternate reality games (ARGs) have been applied in museum learning to encourage learners' active engagement through playful problem‐solving activities. However, most learners have insufficient prior knowledge and metacognitive skills to complete the learning tasks in such games. To support learning with ARGs, there is a need to provide proper feedback so that the learners are capable of self‐regulated learning and solving the problems encountered during the learning process. Considering the influences of individual differences, this research developed a chatbot as a learning partner in ARG‐based learning to support students’ learning with adaptive feedback in a museum. A quasi‐experimental study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness with and without the proposed approach. The results showed that the AI‐based chatbot approach could significantly improve learners' metacognition awareness, emotional engagement and behavioural engagement. Besides, it is helpful to facilitate students' double‐loop learning.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Alternate reality games (ARGs) enable students to interact with real‐world contexts. The complexities of real contexts and ambiguities of the ARGs could frustrate students and demotivate their engagement in problem‐solving activities. Conventional corrected feedback may fail to match individual students' requirements in solving encountered problems. What this paper adds An AI‐based chatbot was designed as a smart learning partner to support the students in solving encountered problems. The experimental results showed that the proposed approach improved students' metacognitive awareness and engagement. A drawing analysis and a behaviour sequential analysis were applied to further examine the students' perceptions and behavioural patterns. Implications for practice and/or policy It is potentially worth integrating AI‐based chatbots into game‐based learning to promote students' metacognitive awareness and engagement. AI‐based chatbots provide adaptive feedback to effectively facilitate students' self‐regulated learning and double‐loop learning. Alternate reality games (ARGs) enable students to interact with real‐world contexts. The complexities of real contexts and ambiguities of the ARGs could frustrate students and demotivate their engagement in problem‐solving activities. Conventional corrected feedback may fail to match individual students' requirements in solving encountered problems. An AI‐based chatbot was designed as a smart learning partner to support the students in solving encountered problems. The experimental results showed that the proposed approach improved students' metacognitive awareness and engagement. A drawing analysis and a behaviour sequential analysis were applied to further examine the students' perceptions and behavioural patterns. It is potentially worth integrating AI‐based chatbots into game‐based learning to promote students' metacognitive awareness and engagement. AI‐based chatbots provide adaptive feedback to effectively facilitate students' self‐regulated learning and double‐loop learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate assessment and effective feedback are crucial for cultivating learners' abilities of collaborative problem‐solving and critical thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Based on quantitative content analysis (QCA), there has been a methodological evolvement from descriptive statistics to sequential mining and to network analysis for mining coded discourse data. Epistemic network analysis (ENA) has recently gained increasing recognition for modelling and visualizing the temporal characteristics of online discussions. However, due to methodological restraints, some valuable information regarding online discussion dynamics remains unexplained, including the directionality of connections between theoretical indicators and the trajectory of thinking development. Guided by the community of inquiry (CoI) model, this study extended generic ENA by incorporating directional connections and stanza‐based trajectory tracking. By examining the proposed extensions with discussion data of an online learning course, this study first verified that the extensions are comparable with QCA, indicating acceptable assessment validity. Then, the directional ENA revealed that two‐way connections between CoI indicators could vary over time and across groups, reflecting different discussion strategies. Furthermore, trajectory tracking effectively detected and visualized the fine‐grained progression of thinking. At the end, we summarize several research and practical implications of the ENA extensions for assessing the learning process.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Assessment and feedback are crucial for cultivating collaborative problem‐solving and critical thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Cognitive presence is an important construct describing the progression of thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Epistemic network analysis is gaining increasing recognition for modelling the temporal characteristics of online inquiries. What this paper adds Directional connections between discourses can reflect different online discussion strategies of groups and individuals. A pair of connected discourses coded with the community of inquiry model can have different meanings depending on their temporal order. A trajectory tracking approach can uncover the fine‐grained progression of thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Implications for practice and/or policy Besides the occurrences of individual discourses, examining the meanings of directional co‐occurrences of discourses in online discussions is worthwhile. Groups and individuals can employ different discussion strategies and follow diverse paths to thought development. Developmental assessment is crucial for understanding how participants achieve specific outcomes and providing adaptive feedback. Assessment and feedback are crucial for cultivating collaborative problem‐solving and critical thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Cognitive presence is an important construct describing the progression of thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Epistemic network analysis is gaining increasing recognition for modelling the temporal characteristics of online inquiries. Directional connections between discourses can reflect different online discussion strategies of groups and individuals. A pair of connected discourses coded with the community of inquiry model can have different meanings depending on their temporal order. A trajectory tracking approach can uncover the fine‐grained progression of thinking in online inquiry‐based discussions. Besides the occurrences of individual discourses, examining the meanings of directional co‐occurrences of discourses in online discussions is worthwhile. Groups and individuals can employ different discussion strategies and follow diverse paths to thought development. Developmental assessment is crucial for understanding how participants achieve specific outcomes and providing adaptive feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many technology acceptance models used in education were originally designed for general technologies and later adopted by education researchers. This study extends Davis' technology acceptance model to specifically evaluate educational technologies in higher education, focusing on virtual classrooms. Prior research informed the construction of the model, which contains perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, behavioural intent, access and convenience, system attributes and self‐efficacy. Education‐specific constructs include cognitive engagement, feedback, instructor practice and class interaction and communication. Additionally, a new construct called comfort and well‐being is introduced. A total of 427 valid responses on a 5‐point Likert scale were received from university students. Exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were used to analyse the data. The model accounted for 78% of variance of behavioural intent, with comfort and well‐being demonstrating the strongest influence. Cognitive engagement, access and convenience influenced perceived usefulness, and system attributes and self‐efficacy influenced perceived ease of use. Feedback, instructor practice and class interaction and communication were not significant as educational constructs for this cohort. Based on this analysis, a final extended educational technology acceptance model (EETAM) is proposed for further use and testing.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Most technology acceptance models used in education were made for general technologies, or do not include factors specific to learning and pedagogy. Most students prefer face‐to‐face learning experiences and active class engagement. Qualitative research shows that instructional attributes and student comfort and well‐being are known to be important for students. What this paper adds A novel extended educational technology acceptance model, informed by prior empirical research, is presented. Confirmation of the importance of including student comfort and well‐being in technology acceptance models used in education. The model revealed the heterogeneous nature of the student learning experience. Implications for practice and research Technology acceptance models used in educational settings should include factors specific for education and learning, and student comfort and well‐being. We encourage use of the presented model in educational settings to further test the model. Most technology acceptance models used in education were made for general technologies, or do not include factors specific to learning and pedagogy. Most students prefer face‐to‐face learning experiences and active class engagement. Qualitative research shows that instructional attributes and student comfort and well‐being are known to be important for students. A novel extended educational technology acceptance model, informed by prior empirical research, is presented. Confirmation of the importance of including student comfort and well‐being in technology acceptance models used in education. The model revealed the heterogeneous nature of the student learning experience. Technology acceptance models used in educational settings should include factors specific for education and learning, and student comfort and well‐being. We encourage use of the presented model in educational settings to further test the model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study assessed the effectiveness of the ECRIMO educational application designed to build first‐grade level spelling skills. We tested whether using the app to teach spelling would be as effective as providing the same training using traditional paper exercises. The effect of integrating gamification into mobile learning apps, which has been little studied in the context of young children, is also investigated. A pretest/training/posttest design was implemented with 311 first‐graders divided in four groups: no training, paper training, the ECRIMO app with gamification features, and the ECRIMO app without gamification. Spelling, reading and phonological awareness abilities was measured at both pretest and posttest. The training was conducted over a 7‐week period (4.40 hours in total). The experimental design allowed us to answer three questions: (1) Is spelling training effective regardless of the medium used? (2) Is training through the app as efficient as paper‐based training? (3) Does gamification impact students' learning performance? Mixed‐model analyses revealed (1) a positive effect on the training outcome depended on the initial spelling ability of participants, (2) a comparable efficiency between autonomous training using the ECRIMO app on tablets and the same training provided by teachers using paper exercises and (3) a marginally positive effect of gamification that is greater for the weakest students. The present study proposes an original and pertinent experimental design to test the relevance of educational applications. The design features of learning apps can impact students' learning differently depending on their initial level. A critical step should be verifying that using online apps for training is at least as effective as the same training using paper exercises. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic A significant number of children experience difficulties in reading and spelling from the first years of learning.The use of new technologies to support classroom teaching is rapidly developing as a topic of interest for educational professionals and researchers.Evaluations of new technologies developed to enhance literacy skills suggest that many factors can vary their effectiveness.The effectiveness of a digital educational application can be enhanced or undermined by design choices, such as gamification.What this paper adds Spelling training with the app ECRIMO seems effective for first year students, especially those with the lowest and middle level.Comparable effects of both the tablet‐based and paper equivalent training on participants' spelling were found.The use of gamification in ECRIMO could be more suitable for the weakest students.Implications for practice and/or policy Educational technologies should be evidence‐based and should be evaluated with both a passive and an active control group.The design should be carefully considered and tested, as it may be advantageous for some students and disadvantageous for others.The use of digital technology in education can be beneficial for classroom practice, when the activity can be carried out in total autonomy, leaving the teacher available for a group of pupils with specific needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses a three‐level model that synthesizes and unifies existing learning theories to model the roles of artificial intelligence (AI) in promoting learning processes. The model, drawn from developmental psychology, computational biology, instructional design, cognitive science, complexity and sociocultural theory, includes a causal learning mechanism that explains how learning occurs and works across micro, meso and macro levels. The model also explains how information gained through learning is aggregated, or brought together, as well as dissipated, or released and used within and across the levels. Fourteen roles for AI in education are proposed, aligned with the model's features: four roles at the individual or micro level, four roles at the meso level of teams and knowledge communities and six roles at the macro level of cultural historical activity. Implications for research and practice, evaluation criteria and a discussion of limitations are included. Armed with the proposed model, AI developers can focus their work with learning designers, researchers and practitioners to leverage the proposed roles to improve individual learning, team performance and building knowledge communities. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Numerous learning theories exist with significant cross‐over of concepts, duplication and redundancy in terms and structure that offer partial explanations of learning.Frameworks concerning learning have been offered from several disciplines such as psychology, biology and computer science but have rarely been integrated or unified.Rethinking learning theory for the age of artificial intelligence (AI) is needed to incorporate computational resources and capabilities into both theory and educational practices.What this paper adds A three‐level theory (ie, micro, meso and macro) of learning that synthesizes and unifies existing theories is proposed to enhance computational modelling and further develop the roles of AI in education.A causal model of learning is defined, drawing from developmental psychology, computational biology, instructional design, cognitive science and sociocultural theory, which explains how learning occurs and works across the levels.The model explains how information gained through learning is aggregated, or brought together, as well as dissipated, or released and used within and across the levels.Fourteen roles for AI in education are aligned with the model's features: four roles at the individual or micro level, four roles at the meso level of teams and knowledge communities and six roles at the macro level of cultural historical activity.Implications for practice and policy Researchers may benefit from referring to the new theory to situate their work as part of a larger context of the evolution and complexity of individual and organizational learning and learning systems.Mechanisms newly discovered and explained by future researchers may be better understood as contributions to a common framework unifying the scientific understanding of learning theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper suggests that artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) can be fruitfully analysed as 'policies frozen in silicon'. This means that they exist as both materialised and proposed problematisations (problem representations with corresponding solutions). As a theoretical and analytical response, this paper puts forward a heuristic lens that can provide insights into how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to certain problematisations based on various imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported. The combined reading of imaginaries and problematisations can thereby aid in our understanding of why and how visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments. The overall ambition is to advance theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology‐augmented) education in society. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicArtificial intelligence in education (AIEd) is repeatedly presented as a solution for a range of educational 'problems'.This means that such 'solutions' must also frame certain aspects as 'problems'.Such problems and 'solutions' (problematisations) also exist within certain imaginaries of the present times and of the future, where these problematisations are presented as particularly significant and acute, and promoting specific anticipations of learning and ideals of education.What this paper addsAn exposition of problematisations in educational settings.An exposition of educational imaginaries.A heuristic lens for understanding the 'present' and 'future' in a particular imaginary as entangled in, and dependent on, a certain 'past'.Implications for practice and/or policyThe approach presented in this paper provides a heuristic lens for examining how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to problematisations based on imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported.This aids our understanding of how and why certain visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments (real or imagined).It also advances theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system, which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology‐augmented) education in society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents the outcomes of a semi‐systematic literature review on the role of learning theory in multimodal learning analytics (MMLA) research. Based on previous systematic literature reviews in MMLA and an additional new search, 35 MMLA works were identified that use theory. The results show that MMLA studies do not always discuss their findings within an established theoretical framework. Most of the theory‐driven MMLA studies are positioned in the cognitive and affective domains, and the three most frequently used theories are embodied cognition, cognitive load theory and control–value theory of achievement emotions. Often, the theories are only used to inform the study design, but there is a relationship between the most frequently used theories and the data modalities used to operationalize those theories. Although studies such as these are rare, the findings indicate that MMLA affordances can, indeed, lead to theoretical contributions to learning sciences. In this work, we discuss methods of accelerating theory‐driven MMLA research and how this acceleration can extend or even create new theoretical knowledge. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicMultimodal learning analytics (MMLA) is an emerging field of research with inherent connections to advanced computational analyses of social phenomena.MMLA can help us monitor learning activity at the micro‐level and model cognitive, affective and social factors associated with learning using data from both physical and digital spaces.MMLA provide new opportunities to support students' learning.What this paper addsSome MMLA works use theory, but, overall, the role of theory is currently limited.The three theories dominating MMLA research are embodied cognition, control–value theory of achievement emotions and cognitive load theory.Most of the theory‐driven MMLA papers use theory 'as is' and do not consider the analytical and synthetic role of theory or aim to contribute to it.Implications for practice and/or policyIf the ultimate goal of MMLA, and AI in Education in general, research is to understand and support human learning, these studies should be expected to align their findings (or not) with established relevant theories.MMLA research is mature enough to contribute to learning theory, and more research should aim to do so.MMLA researchers and practitioners, including technology designers, developers, educators and policy‐makers, can use this review as an overview of the current state of theory‐driven MMLA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We argue in this paper that there is currently no adequate theoretical framework or model that spans the twelve odd year trajectory from non‐reader to proficient reader, nor addresses fine‐grain skill acquisition, mastery and integration. The target construct itself, reading proficiency, as often operationalized as an endpoint of formal secondary schooling, is defined and measured in imprecise, fragmented terms. Consequently, schools (and empirical research) fall back on heuristics like the Simple View of Reading, or a few stages (learn to read, read to learn, read to do) to describe reading development. Those models, however, are too general to guide instructional decisions for adaptive learning systems. Progress in engineering an adequate learning system has been inhibited by a mismatch with curriculum standards and school organization that impose good‐faith but not fully optimized developmental targets on the educational system. We propose the development of a learning and assessment framework to scaffold reading proficiency development while accounting for the diverse learning trajectories of groups or individuals across development. We then identify some key problems, challenges and opportunities that AI technologies are poised to help us address in conceiving individualized, adaptive learning systems for reading proficiency across the developmental spectrum. We close with a selective review of examples of AI‐enhanced research or products. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Reading proficiency is a vital component of education systems design.Theoretical and empirical studies across multiple disciplines have been published, but much of this research is framed in fragmented theories that do not seamlessly span the trajectory of life‐long reading development.Current assessments are time‐consuming, coarse‐grained and fail to provide a roadmap for educators and designers of adaptive learning environments.There is a significant lack of knowledge of potentially non‐linear growth in reading skills within or between years and how to design adaptive instruction for diverse subpopulations.What this paper adds We describe the initial steps towards a literacy learning and assessment framework that spans the trajectory from non‐reader to proficient reader.We provide a landscape of exemplars of artificial intelligence and computational linguistics that reflect the possibilities of a more comprehensive, cohesive literacy development system.We reflect upon key problems, challenges and opportunities that AI technologies can help address in conceiving individualized, adaptive learning systems for reading proficiency across the developmental spectrum.Implications for practice and/or policy AI and computational linguistics can help fill in the gaps in understanding and enacting a longitudinal vision of reading development.Educators would ideally know what to expect of their students at particular points of development, identify deviations and have additional tools to intervene effectively to maximize progress.There is a need to develop adaptive instruction that spans the development of proficiency from preschool to college/career levels and adapts to address common barriers among diverse subpopulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advancements in artificial intelligence are rapidly increasing. The new‐generation large language models, such as ChatGPT and GPT‐4, bear the potential to transform educational approaches, such as peer‐feedback. To investigate peer‐feedback at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and educational research, this paper suggests a cross‐disciplinary framework that aims to facilitate the development of NLP‐based adaptive measures for supporting peer‐feedback processes in digital learning environments. To conceptualize this process, we introduce a peer‐feedback process model, which describes learners' activities and textual products. Further, we introduce a terminological and procedural scheme that facilitates systematically deriving measures to foster the peer‐feedback process and how NLP may enhance the adaptivity of such learning support. Building on prior research on education and NLP, we apply this scheme to all learner activities of the peer‐feedback process model to exemplify a range of NLP‐based adaptive support measures. We also discuss the current challenges and suggest directions for future cross‐disciplinary research on the effectiveness and other dimensions of NLP‐based adaptive support for peer‐feedback. Building on our suggested framework, future research and collaborations at the intersection of education and NLP can innovate peer‐feedback in digital learning environments. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic There is considerable research in educational science on peer‐feedback processes.Natural language processing facilitates the analysis of students' textual data.There is a lack of systematic orientation regarding which NLP techniques can be applied to which data to effectively support the peer‐feedback process.What this paper adds A comprehensive overview model that describes the relevant activities and products in the peer‐feedback process.A terminological and procedural scheme for designing NLP‐based adaptive support measures.An application of this scheme to the peer‐feedback process results in exemplifying the use cases of how NLP may be employed to support each learner activity during peer‐feedback.Implications for practice and/or policy To boost the effectiveness of their peer‐feedback scenarios, instructors and instructional designers should identify relevant leverage points, corresponding support measures, adaptation targets and automation goals based on theory and empirical findings.Management and IT departments of higher education institutions should strive to provide digital tools based on modern NLP models and integrate them into the respective learning management systems; those tools should help in translating the automation goals requested by their instructors into prediction targets, take relevant data as input and allow for evaluating the predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital literacy games can be beneficial for children with reading difficulties as a supplement to classroom instruction and an important feature of these games are the instructional supports, such as feedback. To be effective, feedback needs to build on prior instruction and match a learner's level of prior knowledge. However, there is limited research around the relationship between prior knowledge, instruction and feedback in the context of learning games. This paper presents an empirical study exploring the influence of prior knowledge on response to feedback, in two conditions: with or without instruction. Thirty‐six primary children (age 8–11) with reading difficulties participated: each child was assessed for their prior knowledge of two suffix types—noun and adjective suffixes. They subsequently received additional instruction for one suffix type and then played two rounds of a literacy game—one round for each suffix type. Our analysis shows that prior knowledge predicted initial success rates and performance after a verbal hint differently, depending on whether instruction was provided. These results are discussed with regards to learning game feedback design and the impact on different types of knowledge involved in gameplay, as well as other game design elements that might support knowledge building during gameplay. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicInstructional supports, such as elaborative feedback, are a key feature of learning games.To be effective, feedback needs to build on prior instruction and match a learner's level of prior knowledge.Prior knowledge is an important moderator to consider in the context of elaborative feedback.What this paper addsProviding additional instruction (eg, pre‐training) may act as a knowledge enhancer building on children's existing disciplinary expertise, whereas the inclusion of elaborative feedback (eg, a hint) could be seen as a knowledge equaliser enabling children regardless of their prior knowledge to use the pre‐training within their gameplay.Highlights the importance of children's preferred learning strategies within the design of pre‐training and feedback to ensure children are able to use the instructional support provided within the game.Possible implications for pre‐training and feedback design within literacy games, as well as highlighting areas for further research.Implications for practice and/or policyPre‐training for literacy games should highlight key features of the learning content and explicitly make connections with the target learning objective as well as elaborative feedback.Pre‐training should be combined with different types of in‐game feedback for different types of learners (eg, level of prior knowledge) or depending on the type of knowledge that designers want to build (eg, metalinguistic vs. epilinguistic).Modality, content and timing of the feedback should be considered carefully to match the specific needs of the intended target audience and the interaction between them given the primary goal of the game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educational applications (apps) offer opportunities for designing learning activities children enjoy and benefit from. We redesigned a typical mobile learning activity to make it more enjoyable and useful for children. Relying on the technology acceptance model, we investigated whether and how implementing this activity in an app can increase children's intention to use. During the 27‐day study, children (N = 103, 9–14 years) used the app to memorize one‐sentence learning plans each day. Children used three different app‐based learning activities throughout the study. In two standard activities, children reread or reassembled the words of the plan. In the redesigned activity, children represented the meaning of the plan with emojis. Children repeatedly reported on their attitude towards each activity. Subsequently, children reported perceived enjoyment and intention to use the app. Results showed children found the emoji activity most enjoyable, and enjoyment of the emoji activity contributed uniquely towards intention to use. Additionally, children's enjoyment of the app mediated their intention to use the app in the future. Overall, the study suggests that children's enjoyment of an app is crucial in predicting their subsequent intention to use, and it provides a concrete example of how emojis can be used to boost enjoyment. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicEducational applications provide children with unrestricted access to mobile learning resources.Positive attitudes towards educational applications predict behavioural intention to use these applications, at least in young adults.There is a need for more research examining the relevance of enjoyable learning activities in fostering children's sustained usage of an educational application.What this paper addsPositive attitude towards the use of emojis during learning activities uniquely contributed to children's behavioural intention to use the application.Perceived enjoyment predicted behavioural intention to use the application.Perceived enjoyment mediated the effect of attitude towards using learning activities on the behavioural intention to use the mobile educational application.Implications for practice and/or policyThese findings highlight the importance of enjoyment for children's' acceptance of educational applications.Enjoyable learning activities are necessary to ensure sustained usage of educational applications.The paper provides a concrete example of how emojis can be used to boost enjoyment of a typical mobile learning activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial intelligence (AI) has generated a plethora of new opportunities, potential and challenges for understanding and supporting learning. In this paper, we position human and AI collaboration for socially shared regulation (SSRL) in learning. Particularly, this paper reflects on the intersection of human and AI collaboration in SSRL research, which presents an exciting prospect for advancing our understanding and support of learning regulation. Our aim is to operationalize this human‐AI collaboration by introducing a novel trigger concept and a hybrid human‐AI shared regulation in learning (HASRL) model. Through empirical examples that present AI affordances for SSRL research, we demonstrate how humans and AI can synergistically work together to improve learning regulation. We argue that the integration of human and AI strengths via hybrid intelligence is critical to unlocking a new era in learning sciences research. Our proposed frameworks present an opportunity for empirical evidence and innovative designs that articulate the potential for human‐AI collaboration in facilitating effective SSRL in teaching and learning. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicFor collaborative learning to succeed, socially shared regulation has been acknowledged as a key factor.Artificial intelligence (AI) is a powerful and potentially disruptive technology that can reveal new insights to support learning.It is questionable whether traditional theories of how people learn are useful in the age of AI.What this paper addsIntroduces a trigger concept and a hybrid Human‐AI Shared Regulation in Learning (HASRL) model to offer insights into how the human‐AI collaboration could occur to operationalize SSRL research.Demonstrates the potential use of AI to advance research and practice on socially shared regulation of learning.Provides clear suggestions for future human‐AI collaboration in learning and teaching aiming at enhancing human learning and regulatory skills.Implications for practice and/or policyEducational technology developers could utilize our proposed framework to better align technological and theoretical aspects for their design of adaptive support that can facilitate students' socially shared regulation of learning.Researchers and practitioners could benefit from methodological development incorporating human‐AI collaboration for capturing, processing and analysing multimodal data to examine and support learning regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extraordinary amount of data is becoming available in educational settings, collected from a wide range of Educational Technology tools and services. This creates opportunities for using methods from Artificial Intelligence and Learning Analytics (LA) to improve learning and the environments in which it occurs. And yet, analytics results produced using these methods often fail to link to theoretical concepts from the learning sciences, making them difficult for educators to trust, interpret and act upon. At the same time, many of our educational theories are difficult to formalise into testable models that link to educational data. New methodologies are required to formalise the bridge between big data and educational theory. This paper demonstrates how causal modelling can help to close this gap. It introduces the apparatus of causal modelling, and shows how it can be applied to well‐known problems in LA to yield new insights. We conclude with a consideration of what causal modelling adds to the theory‐versus‐data debate in education, and extend an invitation to other investigators to join this exciting programme of research. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic'Correlation does not equal causation' is a familiar claim in many fields of research but increasingly we see the need for a causal understanding of our educational systems.Big data bring many opportunities for analysis in education, but also a risk that results will fail to replicate in new contexts.Causal inference is a well‐developed approach for extracting causal relationships from data, but is yet to become widely used in the learning sciences.What this paper addsAn overview of causal modelling to support educational data scientists interested in adopting this promising approach.A demonstration of how constructing causal models forces us to more explicitly specify the claims of educational theories.An understanding of how we can link educational datasets to theoretical constructs represented as causal models so formulating empirical tests of the educational theories that they represent.Implications for practice and/or policyCausal models can help us to explicitly specify educational theories in a testable format.It is sometimes possible to make causal inferences from educational data if we understand our system well enough to construct a sufficiently explicit theoretical model.Learning Analysts should work to specify more causal models and test their predictions, as this would advance our theoretical understanding of many educational systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date researchers have had difficulty establishing reliable conclusions in studies comparing traditional forms of learning (eg paper-based or classroom based) vs online learning in relation to student learning outcomes; no consistent results have emerged, and many studies have not been controlled for factors other than lesson mode. This paper compares the effects of presenting two versions of lessons on punctuation that differed only in their mode of presentation. 59 students completed a pre-lesson questionnaire, and after the lessons completed another questionnaire plus the NASA-TLX which tests subjective cognitive workload stress. The results showed that students who sat the lessons on paper performed 24% better than those who sat the lessons online. Reasons for this difference in learning outcomes are considered, but no clear reason is apparent in the data from this study. The study sounds a note of caution in terms of the move by tertiary institutions to online and/or blended learning, and suggests further studies are required which assess learning outcomes in different mode of learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to compare the effects of paper-based and computer-based concept mappings on computer hardware achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude of the eight grade secondary school students. The students were randomly allocated to three groups and were given instruction on computer hardware. The teaching methods used for each group were the conventional method, paper-based concept mapping and computer-based concept mapping. At the end of a 4-week instruction, posttests were administered to assess computer hardware achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude of the students. The findings indicate that paper-based and computer-based concept mapping strategies produce better results than the conventional method. However, the effects of paper-based and computer-based concept mapping strategies were not significantly different. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many colleges have either begun or are contemplating using the web-based survey to gather student feedback on faculty teaching. Unlike the paper-based method, the web-based approach gives every student in the class the opportunity to provide feedback. Hence, the populations that participate in the web-based and paper-based methods may be quite different, and so may be the feedback. This paper compares the results of student feedback gathered through paper-based and web-based approaches. The results provide information to faculty and administrators on any differences they may expect as they make the transition from a paper-based to a web-based survey of faculty teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Translation of questionnaire instruments to digital administration systems, both self-contained and web-based, is widespread and increasing daily. However, the literature is lean on controlled empirical studies investigating the potential for differential effects of administrative methods. In this study, two university student samples were administered 16 questionnaires across three separate administration conditions: paper-based, computer-based and web-based. Outcomes of interest included data quality and participant affect. Overall, few differences in data quality were observed between administration conditions despite some evidence in favour of paper-based administration (PBA) over the other two. Affective responses of participants favoured the PBA over web- and computer-based administrations. Implications for research use of digital systems for data collection are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation seeks to confirm several key factors in computer–based versus paper–based assessment. Based on earlier research, the factors considered here include content familiarity, computer familiarity, competitiveness, and gender. Following classroom instruction, freshman business undergraduates (N = 105) were randomly assigned to either a computer–based or identical paper–based test. ANOVA of test data showed that the computer–based test group outperformed the paper–based test group. Gender, competitiveness, and computer familiarity were NOT related to this performance difference, though content familiarity was. Higher–attaining students benefited most from computer–based assessment relative to higher–attaining students under paper–based testing. With the current increase in computer–based assessment, instructors and institutions must be aware of and plan for possible test mode effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two-part study, involving 14- to 15-year-old high school students, compared two modes of responding to free response examination questions: by computer and, the traditional way, by pen and paper. In Part 1, both the computer group ( n = 57) and the pen and paper group ( n = 52) were formed by random assignment. They answered three essay questions from a 1997 external English test which were holistically marked. In Part 2, the computer group ( n = 88) and the pen and paper group ( n = 53) chose their preferred method of response. They answered two essay questions from a 1999 external English test, which were analytically marked using standards-referenced criteria. For four of the five questions, there were no significant differences between the pen and paper response marks and the computer response marks when presented in their original formats. When the pen and paper responses were word-processed, markers tended to award higher marks to the handwritten scripts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several scholars contend that learning with computer games and simulations results in students thinking more like professionals. Bearing this goal in mind, we investigated how a group of pharmacy students learnt with an in-house developed computer simulation, SimPharm. Adopting situated cognition as our theoretical lens, we conducted a case study involving 20 undergraduate students to tease out how they made meaning of a clinical case differently in two different contexts: a typical paper-based workshop and one enabled by SimPharm. The data collected included audio recordings of classroom discourse, focus group interviews and class observations. The findings identified differences in four areas: framing of the problem; problem-solving steps and tools used; sources and meaning of feedback; and conceptualisation of the patient. These four areas can serve as axes along which future evaluations of educational simulations can be carried out based on their affordances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a study evaluating student perceptions of online assignment submission. 47 students submitted assignments and received feedback via features within the Virtual Learning Environment Blackboard™. The students then completed questionnaires comparing their experience of online submission and feedback with traditional methods. Results indicated that 88% of students reported a time saving and many reported financial benefits using online submission. 93% of students preferred having their feedback available online rather than printed and handed to them. Overall, students preferred online assignment management to postal or physical hand-in. The main disadvantage of electronic submission appeared to be student distrust of the receipt system. The use of online assignment submission and management is recommended for use in Higher Education establishments where students may be remote. It is most suitable for assignments that do not require inclusion of many images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online peer assessment (OPA) has been increasingly adopted to develop students' higher‐order thinking (HOT). However, there has not been a synthesis of research findings on its effects. To fill this gap, 17 papers (published from 2000 to 2022) that reported either a comparison between a group using OPA (n = 7; k = 22) and a control group or a pre–post comparison (n = 10; k = 17) were reviewed in this meta‐analysis. The overall effect of OPA on HOT was significant (g = 0.76). Furthermore, OPA exerted more significant effects on convergent HOT (eg, critical thinking, reasoning and reflective thinking; g = 0.97) than on divergent HOT (eg, creativity and problem‐solving; g = 0.38). Reciprocal roles and anonymity were found to positively moderate the impacts of OPA on HOT, although their moderating effects were not statistically significant because of small sample size of studies in the analysis. The results of the meta‐analysis reinforce the arguments for regarding OPA as a powerful learning tool to facilitate students' HOT development and reveal important factors that should be considered when adopting OPA to enhance students' HOT. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicOnline peer assessment (OPA) has significant positive impacts on learning achievement.OPA has been regarded as a potential approach to cultivating students' higher‐order thinking (HOT) but has not been proved by meta‐analysis.OPA should be carefully designed to maximise its effectiveness on learning.What this paper addsOPA has been proved to significantly positively influence students' HOT via meta‐analysis.OPA exerted more significant effects on convergent HOT than on divergent HOT.The potential of reciprocal roles and anonymity for moderating the impacts of OPA on HOT should not be underestimated.Implications for practice and/or policyOPA could be a wise choice for practitioners when they help students to achieve a balanced development of HOT dispositions and skills.Students' divergent HOT can be encouraged in their uptake of peer feedback and by allowing them autonomy in deciding assessment criteria.OPA with design elements of reciprocal roles and anonymity has great potential to promote students' HOT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to the scarce literature on factors affecting EdTech use in households. These factors were considered through exploratory mixed‐methods analyses of cross‐sectional data on Kenyan girls and caregivers, captured during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Quantitative analysis of the child dataset (n = 544) suggested the importance of both structural factors—such as technology hardware availability—and non‐structural factors—including caregiver permission. Findings were supported by a thematic analysis of interview data from girls' caregivers (n = 58), which emphasised the role they play in girls' use of EdTech. Interviews also highlighted numerous caregiver concerns with EdTech, related to the relevance and rigour of educational content, the possibility of children accessing age‐inappropriate material and child health (especially eyesight). Policy makers could alleviate these concerns by providing guidance on EdTech use and clearly signalling their approval of verified initiatives. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topicEdTech can benefit girls' education, yet there are various barriers to it being used.Existing research shows clearly that EdTech use can be impeded by structural factors (eg, hardware ownership).However, we find insufficient empirical evidence on the role of non‐structural or behavioural factors.What this paper addsThis paper addresses this gap, using a mixed‐methods approach to explore the influence of 33 different measures (including non‐structural factors) that could affect the number of hours girls spend using EdTech at home.Findings from a quantitative sample of girls (n = 544) and a qualitative sample of girls' caregivers (n = 58) highlighted the importance of non‐structural factors, especially caregiver permission.The variable most strongly associated with girls' EdTech usage in our selected quantitative model concerned whether this was sanctioned by their caregivers.Our qualitative data suggested why caregiver permission to use EdTech might be withheld: caregivers emphasised perceived concerns about the risks and rigour of EdTech.Implications for practice and/or policyOur findings suggest the viability of policy interventions that provide EdTech guidance to caregivers.Caregivers uncertain about EdTech could be reassured of the appropriateness of verified initiatives, while those already convinced might be aided in their attempts to support EdTech learning.Such guidance could provide a low‐cost means of further exploiting the benefits that household EdTech learning can provide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As teachers are purveyors of digital citizenship and their perspectives influence classroom practice, it is important to understand teachers' views on digital citizenship. This study establishes the Teachers' Perceptions of Digital Citizenship Scale (T‐PODS) as a survey instrument for scholars to investigate educators' views on digital citizenship for their students. Drawing upon existing research, a theorized model of digital citizenship was developed and validated via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), resulting in a 14‐item four‐factor model. Factor constructs include digital ethics, participation and engagement, informed citizens and civic know‐how. As teachers' views can shift over time, particularly with the emergence of new technologies, scholars can utilize T‐PODS as they investigate educators' perceptions of digital citizenship across time and context.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Digital citizenship is crucial for modern society and involves becoming a well‐informed and responsible participant in digital spaces. A few instruments exist for measuring digital citizenship, which have focused on the behaviours and perceptions of young people, including children and university students. Teachers play an important role in helping children develop their digital citizenship skills. What this paper adds This study presents a new validated model that conceptualizes four key constructs of digital citizenship: digital ethics, participation and engagement, informed citizen and civic know‐how. It also demonstrates the relationship between these constructs and their connections to the literature. This article also establishes the Teachers' Perceptions of Digital Citizenship Scale (T‐PODS), a 14‐item survey instrument that measures teachers' perceptions of these four constructs. Implications for practice and/or policy Researchers and educators can use T‐PODS to understand teachers' perceptions of digital citizenship across time, locations and contexts. Drawing upon the four key constructs, teachers can identify and address constructs, skills and processes that are most applicable to their students and educational goals. Policymakers and curriculum developers can utilize these four constructs to develop both targeted and well‐rounded digital citizenship educational experiences. Digital citizenship is crucial for modern society and involves becoming a well‐informed and responsible participant in digital spaces. A few instruments exist for measuring digital citizenship, which have focused on the behaviours and perceptions of young people, including children and university students. Teachers play an important role in helping children develop their digital citizenship skills. This study presents a new validated model that conceptualizes four key constructs of digital citizenship: digital ethics, participation and engagement, informed citizen and civic know‐how. It also demonstrates the relationship between these constructs and their connections to the literature. This article also establishes the Teachers' Perceptions of Digital Citizenship Scale (T‐PODS), a 14‐item survey instrument that measures teachers' perceptions of these four constructs. Researchers and educators can use T‐PODS to understand teachers' perceptions of digital citizenship across time, locations and contexts. Drawing upon the four key constructs, teachers can identify and address constructs, skills and processes that are most applicable to their students and educational goals. Policymakers and curriculum developers can utilize these four constructs to develop both targeted and well‐rounded digital citizenship educational experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]