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This small-scale pilot study aimed to establish how the mode of response in an examination affects candidates' performances on items that require an extended answer. The sample comprised 46 17-year-old students from two classes (one in a state secondary school and one in a state sixth-form college), who sat a mock A-level English Literature examination. The analysis compared writing produced on screen and on paper to try to uncover any systematic differences between the two modes of delivery. The study considered the linguistic features of the texts produced in each mode, the marks achieved and the views of the participants regarding the use of computers in essay-based examinations. The study found that the response mode had a small effect on the length of essay produced, in that students using a computer wrote more, and on the type of language used, in that students writing on paper used denser but less varied language. There was very little effect on the marks achieved. Participants expressed a variety of concerns about computer-based examinations, such as noisy keyboards, assessment of spelling, and unfairness towards those who are less comfortable with the technology.

This study investigated the added value of real-time adaptive feedback on seventh graders' performances in tablet-based geometry learning. To isolate the effects of the medium (ie, tablet) from those of the feedback, three groups were compared: paper-and-pencil, pen-based tablet without feedback and pen-based tablet with feedback. The feedback was provided by a tutoring system based on an artificial intelligence that automatically interpreted students' pen strokes on the screen. A total of 85 French students drew three geometric shapes, either on paper or on a tablet, and then performed a transfer task on paper. Results showed that using a tablet without feedback did not improve learning but seemed to enhance interest in the task compared to the paper-and-pencil group. Students in the tablet with feedback group performed significantly better than the other two groups on learning, as well as on transfer. This study was the first to combine media comparison and added-value approaches to test the effects on students' geometry performances of using a new educational app on a pen-based tablet in a naturalistic classroom environment. Results showed that it was not the medium used but the intelligent tutoring system-based feedback that improved students' performance. Our data therefore indicate that artificial intelligence is a promising way of providing learners with real-time adaptive feedback in order to improve their performances.

The purpose of this paper is to compare the effects of paper-based and computer-based concept mappings on computer hardware achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude of the eight grade secondary school students. The students were randomly allocated to three groups and were given instruction on computer hardware. The teaching methods used for each group were the conventional method, paper-based concept mapping and computer-based concept mapping. At the end of a 4-week instruction, posttests were administered to assess computer hardware achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude of the students. The findings indicate that paper-based and computer-based concept mapping strategies produce better results than the conventional method. However, the effects of paper-based and computer-based concept mapping strategies were not significantly different.

The paper introduces the student-coined term "digital instinct" which describes students' disposition to resorting to digital technology for solving problems and doing school assignments. Taking cues from the term "digital instinct," the paper describes a student perspective on digital literacy emerging from 100 lived experience descriptions and interviews with 37 Danish upper secondary students. The findings show that students' digital practice is characterised by experience-based, intuitive and familiar use of technologies. Most notably, students employ digital technologies as cognitive partners that help them carry on with assignments that they initially did not understand, but that they were able to complete with the help of the computer. The study examines the nature of this partnership through the words of the students and identifies how technologies expand student agency but fall short of a reflective use of digital technologies. Recognising the strengths and weaknesses of students' digital practices may inform the concept of digital literacy and encourage teachers to acknowledge the digital instinct as a steppingstone to foster students' reflective use of digital technologies.

Previous literature has associated math literacy with linguistic factors such as verbal ability and phonological skills. However, few studies have investigated "linguistic synchrony," shown in mathematical discussions. This study modelled math literacy and examined the relationship of math literacy with linguistic synchrony between students and facilitators. We retrieved data from 20,776 online mathematical discussion threads at a secondary school level. First, we assessed students' math literacy based on their discussions and classified them into high- and low-math literacy groups. Then, we conducted Cross-Recurrence Quantification Analysis (CRQA) to calculate linguistic synchrony within each thread. The result implies that students with high math literacy are more likely to share common words (eg, mathematical terms) with facilitators. At the same time, they would paraphrase the facilitators' words rather than blindly mimic them as the exact sentences or phrases. On the other hand, students with low math literacy tend to use overlapping words with facilitators less frequently and are more likely to repeat the exact same phrases from the facilitators. The findings provide an empirical data analysis and insights into mathematical discussions and linguistic synchrony. In addition, this paper implies the directions to improve online mathematical discussions and foster math literacy.

Educational podcasts have become an increasingly prevalent media used to disseminate profession-specific information through easily accessible means. Despite the potential of educational podcasts as convenient and effective medium, there is a dearth of literature dedicated to the topic. Thus, using the Uses and Gratification framework, the psychometric properties of the "Educational Podcasts Motivation Scale" were examined, as well as the motivational factors that influence intention to listen to educational podcasts and recommend podcasts to others were explored. A sample of individuals in the field of education (n = 606), such as in-service K-12 teachers and higher education professors, were recruited for this study. This sample were randomly divided, and an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted with the first set (n = 312) to identify underlying constructs, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM) were employed with the second set (n = 294). The scale demonstrated strong psychometric properties and five distinct motivational factors were identified: Information Gathering, Flexibility in Use, Social Interaction, Entertainment, and Professional Encouragement. Several motivational factors had significant associations with the constructs of "intention" and "word-of-mouth". This paper demonstrates both the unique motivational factors related to listening to educational podcasts and the motivational factors that overlap with other forms of media. Further examination of the underlying motivations to listen to educational podcasts is warranted.

In the last two decades, there has been a global movement towards pedagogies that create more inclusive school environments in order to meet the needs of diverse learners. One such approach is Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which foregrounds the design of flexible and accessible learning experiences for all, regardless of learner characteristics. Technology is a key enabler in this. To date, much of the research on UDL has focused on its impact in higher education, with less evidence available on the use of UDL within second-level education. This systematic literature review of n = 15 empirical studies selected from a wide-ranging search that returned an initial result of n = 1253 explores how the affordances of digital technology have been harnessed for UDL enactment at second level. The findings show that, to date, empirical research at second level has focused mostly on the easy wins within the UDL principle of Representation, where educators offer choice about how learners access content. However, there is a clear gap in UDL research on the use of technologies to support the Engagement and Action & Expression principles of UDL, supporting student self-regulation and self-assessment, and on technology-mediated communication and collaboration. The paper highlights the potential for future cross-pollination of research in educational technology with UDL.

This paper provides an experience report on a co-design approach with teachers to co-create learning analytics-based technology to support problem-based learning in middle school science classrooms. We have mapped out a workflow for such applications and developed design narratives to investigate the implementation, modifications and temporal roles of the participants in the design process. Our results provide precedent knowledge on co-designing with experienced and novice teachers and co-constructing actionable insight that can help teachers engage more effectively with their students' learning and problem-solving processes during classroom PBL implementations.

We argue in this paper that there is currently no adequate theoretical framework or model that spans the twelve odd year trajectory from non-reader to proficient reader, nor addresses fine-grain skill acquisition, mastery and integration. The target construct itself, reading proficiency, as often operationalized as an endpoint of formal secondary schooling, is defined and measured in imprecise, fragmented terms. Consequently, schools (and empirical research) fall back on heuristics like the Simple View of Reading, or a few stages (learn to read, read to learn, read to do) to describe reading development. Those models, however, are too general to guide instructional decisions for adaptive learning systems. Progress in engineering an adequate learning system has been inhibited by a mismatch with curriculum standards and school organization that impose good-faith but not fully optimized developmental targets on the educational system. We propose the development of a learning and assessment framework to scaffold reading proficiency development while accounting for the diverse learning trajectories of groups or individuals across development. We then identify some key problems, challenges and opportunities that AI technologies are poised to help us address in conceiving individualized, adaptive learning systems for reading proficiency across the developmental spectrum. We close with a selective review of examples of AI-enhanced research or products.

With the support of various personal and institutional mobile technologies, numerous physical and virtual spaces can be turned into interesting and motivating hybrid learning settings. By its nature, outdoor mobile learning happens on the move is connected to specific locations and settings inviting learners to study their surroundings, inquire about natural phenomena and solve complex real-life problems. This poses challenges for teachers to design meaningful, contextualized and comprehensive learning experiences. The paper aims to explore what kind of mobile learning scenarios K-12 teachers create and what are the limitations and development perspectives of these scenarios. Content analysis of 25 location-based outdoor learning tracks with 465 questions and tasks was carried out. The results demonstrate that designing and implementing learning activities outside the safe, familiar classroom environment in new hybrid learning spaces is a challenging task for the teachers on many different levels. Taking Bloom's revised taxonomy, types of contextualization and integrated learning models as frameworks for content analysis of the learning scenarios, the study shows that the teachers do not perceive the potential hybrid spaces and mobile technologies offer in order to design consistent learning experiences that emphasize higher order thinking levels, encompass contextual information and integrate knowledge from multiple disciplinary sources. The paper concludes that there is a need for more teacher training and systemic interventions into current teaching practices that encourage teachers to step outside of their existing teaching paradigms to acknowledge the pedagogical potential of hybrid learning spaces as well as the technological affordances.

Game-based assessment (GBA), a specific application of games for learning, has been recognized as an alternative form of assessment. While there is a substantive body of literature that supports the educational benefits of GBA, limited work investigates the validity and generalizability of such systems. In this paper, we describe applications of learning analytics methods to provide evidence for psychometric qualities of a digital GBA called Shadowspect, particularly to what extent Shadowspect is a robust assessment tool for middle school students' spatial reasoning skills. Our findings indicate that Shadowspect is a valid assessment for spatial reasoning skills, and it has comparable precision for both male and female students. In addition, students' enjoyment of the game is positively related to their overall competency as measured by the game regardless of the level of their existing spatial reasoning skills.

This study describes an approach to history education which leverages augmented reality (AR). Currently, most learning interventions with AR are designed from the paradigm of an expert-led model of teaching, where the AR artefact is created by a domain expert; under such a paradigm, the learner has limited ownership of the process of artefact production. The project reported in this paper aimed to broaden the application of AR in education, specifically to history education, by exploring the affordances of such technology in mediating student-led learning activities, using an approach known as learner-generated augmentation. The current Singapore Secondary History syllabus adopts an inquiry-based approach. The need to memorize key facts is still an important part in formulating historical arguments. The study involved the design of a learning activity to help students memorize historical information more effectively by building upon the established memory technique of Memory Palace/method of loci. In this activity, students used a free AR mobile application--"Just a Line"--to sketch out memory palaces of key information from a prose passage. This activity was trialled on student-teachers who are majoring in History at the National Institute of Education, Singapore. After they had sketched their memory palaces in three dimensions, they were interviewed on their experience. Samples of their learning artefacts (their sketches) and analyses of their comments, are reported. No claim is made with respect to the absolute efficacy of the approach, given the limited number of participants in the study. The intent of this paper is instead to invite exploration and debate around the wider affordances of AR for learning.

This small-scale pilot study aimed to establish how the mode of response in an examination affects candidates' performances on items that require an extended answer. The sample comprised 46 17-year-old students from two classes (one in a state secondary school and one in a state sixth-form college), who sat a mock A-level English Literature examination. The analysis compared writing produced on screen and on paper to try to uncover any systematic differences between the two modes of delivery. The study considered the linguistic features of the texts produced in each mode, the marks achieved and the views of the participants regarding the use of computers in essay-based examinations. The study found that the response mode had a small effect on the length of essay produced, in that students using a computer wrote more, and on the type of language used, in that students writing on paper used denser but less varied language. There was very little effect on the marks achieved. Participants expressed a variety of concerns about computer-based examinations, such as noisy keyboards, assessment of spelling, and unfairness towards those who are less comfortable with the technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disparities in the technology practices, skills and knowledge of school students still exist, despite widespread investment, and use in schools. In order to understand why inequalities remain, we first need a more nuanced understanding of students' technology practice, including understanding how their backgrounds, circumstances and experiences shape their perceptions of and engagement with technology. This paper proposes that research in the field of educational technology would benefit from a sociological framing in order to highlight how and why students use technology at school and in their everyday lives. The paper reports on a qualitative embedded case study of 13-16-year-old students in two Australian secondary schools. In-depth case studies of two selected students illustrate the complex nature of students' technology practice. Bourdieu's concepts of field, habitus and capital are used as a lens through which to view and understand inequalities in students' technology practice. The findings demonstrate the utility of sociological theory in educational technology research by highlighting systems and structures of reproduction and transformation. Furthermore, the findings can inform an approach to teaching and learning that considers students' varied experiences, knowledge, perspectives and backgrounds relating to technology.

In today's information age, developing data science competencies has become vital to fostering responsible citizenry. However, the actual techniques learners need to become proficient in are still somewhat "in-construction", as the relatively new field of data science is constantly expanding to meet new data-related demands. Data science education needs to develop innovative means to keep up with this expansion that focus less on proficiency in specific techniques, but rather introduce novices to authentic data practices, and the authentic purposes directing the authentic practices. This paper focuses on a specific practice, the use of simulations to generate and examine data, in the context of authentic scientific Citizen Science research. We provide a case study of one pair of middle school students' engagement in an extended learning sequence including simulation activities inspired by authentic data practices, adapted to also be authentic for young students. While the simulation activity was inspired by the scientists' purposes, our findings illustrate four different actual purposes the students attributed to it. We also show that as the students deepened their engagement with the simulation, they gradually appropriated its intended purpose, alongside articulating more mature views of data-related concepts. The conclusions summarize the four different purposes the students expressed and identify aspects of design that contributed to the gradual re-shaping process of their actual purposes.

Evidence from various domains underlines the critical role that human factors, and especially trust, play in adopting technology by practitioners. In the case of Artificial Intelligence (AI) powered tools, the issue is even more complex due to practitioners' AI-specific misconceptions, myths and fears (e.g., mass unemployment and privacy violations). In recent years, AI has been incorporated increasingly into K-12 education. However, little research has been conducted on the trust and attitudes of K-12 teachers towards the use and adoption of AI-powered Educational Technology (AI-EdTech). This paper sheds light on teachers' trust in AI-EdTech and presents effective professional development strategies to increase teachers' trust and willingness to apply AI-EdTech in their classrooms. Our experiments with K-12 science teachers were conducted around their interactions with a specific AI-powered assessment tool (termed AI-Grader) using both synthetic and real data. The results indicate that presenting teachers with some explanations of (i) how AI makes decisions, particularly compared to the human experts, and (ii) how AI can complement and give additional strengths to teachers, rather than replacing them, can reduce teachers' concerns and improve their trust in AI-EdTech. The contribution of this research is threefold. First, it emphasizes the importance of increasing teachers' theoretical and practical knowledge about AI in educational settings to gain their trust in AI-EdTech in K-12 education. Second, it presents a teacher professional development program (PDP), as well as the discourse analysis of teachers who completed it. Third, based on the results observed, it presents clear suggestions for future PDPs aiming to improve teachers' trust in AI-EdTech.

The concept of learning ecologies emerged in a context of educational change. While the "learning ecologies" construct has offered a broad semantic space for characterizing innovative ways of learning, it is also true that its potential to promote innovative educational interventions may have been hindered by this same broadness. Based on this assumption, in this paper the authors carried out a systematic review of the literature on learning ecologies with the aim of analysing: (1) the varying definitions given to the concept, including the ontological perspective underlying the phenomena studied; (2) the methodological approaches adopted in studying the phenomenon; and (3) the applications of the research on this topic. Throughout this analysis, the authors attempt to describe the criticalities of the existing research, as well as the potential areas of development that align well with the theoretical/ontological issues, methodological approaches and educational applications. The authors selected and analysed 85 articles, which they then classified in a set of 20 categories defined by them on a theoretical basis. Moreover, in order to triangulate the manual coding, a bibliometric map was created showing the co-citation activity of the 85 papers. The emerging picture showed significant variability in the ontological definitions and methodological approaches. In spite of this richness, few educational applications currently exist, particularly with regard to technology-enhanced learning developments. Most research is observational, devoted to describing hybrid (digital and on-site) learning activities that bridge the gap between the school and social spaces. Furthermore, many of the studies relate to the field of secondary education, with fewer studies exploring adult learning and higher education. The studies dealing with professional development relate mostly to teachers' continuing education. The authors conclude that the concept of learning ecologies could be used to address further experimental and design-based research leading to research applications if there is proper alignment between the ontological, methodological and applicative dimensions. The main potential of this strategy lies in the possibility of supporting learners by raising their awareness of their own learning ecologies, thereby empowering them and encouraging them to engage in agentic practices. This empowerment could help maintain and build new and better learning opportunities, which every learning ecology can incorporate, amidst the chaotic abundance that characterizes the digital society.

Based on two years of ethnographic engagement in a school-based digital design studio in a high school on the West Side of Chicago, Illinois, this paper conceptualizes the development and maintenance of an ethos of care in teaching and learning through "sustaining affective resonance." Adopting musical metaphors as a vocabulary for affective movements, we operationalize practical and practiced methods for sustaining (actively extending) affective (care-giving and care-taking intensities) resonance (shared meaning making and cultural production). Sharing examples across years, we show the specific ways that mentors and students in the digital design studio built and nurtured care-full practices. The purpose of the paper is to explicate the development and enactment of mentoring practices that we observed in the design studio and then to consider how these practices might be shared, spread, and adapted across contexts of teaching and learning.

Technology‐based, open‐ended learning environments (OELEs) can capture detailed information of students' interactions as they work through a task or solve a problem embedded in the environment. This information, in the form of log data, has the potential to provide important insights about the practices adopted by students for scientific inquiry and problem solving. How to parse and analyse the log data to reveal evidence of multifaceted constructs like inquiry and problem solving holds the key to making interactive learning environments useful for assessing students' higher‐order competencies. In this paper, we present a systematic review of studies that used log data generated in OELEs to describe, model and assess scientific inquiry and problem solving. We identify and analyse 70 conference proceedings and journal papers published between 2012 and 2021. Our results reveal large variations in OELE and task characteristics, approaches used to extract features from log data and interpretation models used to link features to target constructs. While the educational data mining and learning analytics communities have made progress in leveraging log data to model inquiry and problem solving, multiple barriers still exist to hamper the production of representative, reproducible and generalizable results. Based on the trends identified, we lay out a set of recommendations pertaining to key aspects of the workflow that we believe will help the field develop more systematic approaches to designing and using OELEs for studying how students engage in inquiry and problem‐solving practices. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Research has shown that technology‐based, open‐ended learning environments (OELEs) that collect users' interaction data are potentially useful tools for engaging students in practice‐based STEM learning.More work is needed to identify generalizable principles of how to design OELE tasks to support student learning and how to analyse the log data to assess student performance.What this paper adds We identified multiple barriers to the production of sufficiently generalizable and robust results to inform practice, with respect to: (1) the design characteristics of the OELE‐based tasks, (2) the target competencies measured, (3) the approaches and techniques used to extract features from log files and (4) the models used to link features to the competencies.Based on this analysis, we can provide a series of specific recommendations to inform future research and facilitate the generalizability and interpretability of results: Making the data available in open‐access repositories, similar to the PISA tasks, for easy access and sharing.Defining target practices more precisely to better align task design with target practices and to facilitate between‐study comparisons.More systematic evaluation of OELE and task designs to improve the psychometric properties of OELE‐based measurement tasks and analysis processes.Focusing more on internal and external validation of both feature generation processes and statistical models, for example with data from different samples or by systematically varying the analysis methods.Implications for practice and/or policy Using the framework of evidence‐centered assessment design, we have identified relevant criteria for organizing and evaluating the diverse body of empirical studies on the topic and that policy makers and practitioners can use for their own further examinations.This paper identifies promising research and development areas on the measurement and assessment of higher‐order constructs with process data from OELE‐based tasks that government agencies and foundations can support.Researchers, technologists and assessment designers might find useful the insights and recommendations for how OELEs can enhance science assessment through thoughtful integration of learning theories, task design and data mining techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research into educational technology has evaluated new computer-based systems as tools for improving students' academic performance and engagement. Serious games should also be considered as an alternative pedagogical medium for attracting students with different needs and expectations. In this field study, we empirically examined different forms of serious-game use for learning on learning performance and attitudes of eighty 13-year-old students in the first grade of middle school. Divided into four groups of 20 students, each group practiced with a maths video game in three ways. The first group played the storytelling maths game, the second played the same game but with no story and the third played and modified the video game. Finally, a control group practised in a paper-based (traditional) way by solving exercises. Although only minor differences in learning performance were identified, we found significant differences in the attitudes of the students toward learning through the video game. Students who are not motivated by conventional paper-based assignments might be engaged better with the use of a video game. Our findings suggest that video game pedagogy could provide malleable learning for different groups of students using methods that move beyond the conventional tool-based approach.

This paper explored the effects of in-class-level differentiation by making innovative use of an interactive whiteboard (SMARTboard) on math proficiency. Therefore, this paper evaluates the use of SMARTboard in class, in combination with teacher training, using a randomized field experiment among 199 pre-vocational students in seventh grade in the Netherlands. During 6 weeks, students in the intervention group participated in math classes in which the SMARTboard was used to apply level differentiation. The teachers of these classes received a specific training (Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge [TPACK]) in using the SMARTboard in class. Control classes were taught by teachers without the training, who did not use the SMARTboard in class. The results showed that level differentiation in class, which was possible because of the efficient use of the SMARTboard, significantly increased math proficiency with 0.25 points.

This paper reports on the first iteration of the Computational Thinking Summer Institute, a month-long programme in which high school teachers co-designed computationally enhanced mathematics and science curricula with researchers. The co-design process itself was a constructionist learning experience for teachers resulting in constructionist curricula to be used in their own classrooms. We present three case studies to illustrate different ways teachers and researchers divided the labour of co-design and the implications of these different co-design styles for teacher learning and classroom enactment. Specifically, some teachers programmed their own computational tools, while others helped to conceptualise them but left the construction to their co-design partners. Results indicate that constructionist co-design is a promising dual approach to curriculum and professional development but that sometimes these two goals are in tension. Most teachers gained considerable confidence and skills in computational thinking, but sometimes the pressure to finish curriculum development during the institute led teachers to leave construction of computational tools to their co-design partners, limiting their own opportunities for computational learning.

Most constructionist efforts have focused on supporting learners with tools for designing with digital and/or physical media. Recent developments in life sciences now allow K-12 learners to design with living materials, or to biodesign. In this paper, we report on the development of a biodesign studio activity called biocakes wherein teams of high school youth genetically modified a yeast strain to bake a nutrient fortified food product. Using a qualitative deductive analysis of classroom observations, interviews and projects, we examined high school youth experiences and reflections of these activities to answer three research questions: (1) What kind of artefacts did youth make with living media? (2) How did youth engage in biodesign? and (3) What did youth have to say about their biodesign experiences? We discuss how our analyses of biodesign applications highlight the importance of assembly practices, social engagement and imaginative design for constructionist learning. These insights provide compelling examples for designing with living media in K-12 education.

Much attention in constructionism has focused on designing tools and activities that support learners in designing fully finished and functional applications and artefacts to be shared with others. But helping students learn to debug their applications often takes on a surprisingly more instructionist stance by giving them checklists, teaching them strategies or providing them with test programmes. The idea of designing bugs for learning--or "debugging by design"--makes learners agents of their own learning and, more importantly, of making and solving mistakes. In this paper, we report on our implementation of 'Debugging by Design' activities in a high school classroom over a period of 8 hours as part of an electronic textiles unit. Students were tasked to craft the electronic textile artefacts with problems or bugs for their peers to solve. Drawing on observations and interviews, we answer the following research questions: (1) How did students participate in making bugs for others? (2) What did students gain from designing and solving bugs for others? In the discussion, we address the opportunities and challenges that designing personally and socially meaningful failure artefacts provides for becoming objects-to-think-with and objects-to-share-with in student learning and promoting new directions in constructionism.

With the development of the "maker movement," more and more teachers are applying a broad range of technological tools in their pedagogy, instead of only information technology. This study details the development and validation of the Teachers Maker-based TPACK Survey Instrument (TMTSI), a revised model designed to measure technology teachers' maker-based technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) in utilizing maker-based tools to support their teaching. We recruited 165 preservice secondary technology teachers in Taiwan for this study and confirmatory factor analysis was applied to validate the instrument. Our findings suggest that TMTSI provided a valid and highly reliable research-based instrument that also serves as a professional development model to help scaffold the development of K-12 technology teachers. This paper details the theoretical foundations of TMTSI, reports on its reliability and validity, and discusses the application and implications of TMTSI for teacher education and professional development.

Secondary schools do not have the same technical resources and capabilities as universities. They usually need to rely on ready-to-use tools to fulfill their information and communication technology (ICT) structure. Social networking site (SNS) has emerged as a practical solution to this need. However, few have collected empirical data on the application of SNS in a secondary school setting. This paper probes into the current condition of SNS usage among secondary school students using a sample of 851 students in Macau, a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China. Data in terms of access, profile and activities are collected. The activities on SNSs are analyzed by regression techniques to produce a prediction model relating perceived academic benefit and SNS activities. The model yields a strong positive relationship between that benefit and activities such as raising questions and engaging in study-related discussions. The model also yields a weak dependency on activities such as searching for information and entertainment. The paper also evaluates the actual academic utilization of a Facebook Group for one class of secondary school students for a period of one year. At the end of the year, various opinion parameters are measured, and improvements are observed in most parameters.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving emergency procedure. To increase survival rates, it is recommended to increase the number of high school students who know how to perform CPR. We have developed an immersive "Virtual Reality (VR) Resuscitation Training" to train the theoretical knowledge of CPR in which trainees must save the life of the patient in a virtual environment. This paper presents a randomized controlled study with a pre-posttest design to explore whether a VR enhanced curriculum improves high school students' theoretical CPR knowledge. Forty students without previous CPR experience in the past year were randomly assigned to either the VR group or the standard group. The VR group had a significant higher increase of correct answers in comparison with the Standard group. More importantly, the gain in score on taking the correct sequence of CPR steps was significant favouring the VR-enhanced protocol over the Standard protocol. Therefore, the use of a VR training for CPR training appears to be an effective learning method for non-medical students and may be of great value skilling high school students in becoming adequate CPR providers.

Science-related competencies are demanded in many fields, but attracting more students to scientific educations remains a challenge. This paper uses two studies to investigate the value of using Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) laboratory simulations in science education. In Study 1, 99 (52 male, 47 female) seventh (49) and eighth (50) grade students between 13 and 16 years of age used an IVR laboratory safety simulation with a pre- to posttest design. Results indicated an overall increase in interest in science and self-efficacy, but only females reported an increase in science career aspirations. Study 2 was conducted with 131 (47 male, 84 female) second (77) and third (54) year high school students aged 17 to 20 and used an experimental design to compare the value of using an IVR simulation or a video of the simulation on the topic of DNA-analysis. The IVR group reported significantly higher gains from pre- to posttest on interest, and social-outcome expectations than the video group. Furthermore, both groups had significant gains in self-efficacy and physical outcome expectations, but the increase in career aspirations and self-outcome expectations did not reach statistical significance. Thus, results from the two studies suggest that appropriately developed and implemented IVR simulations can address some of the challenges currently facing science education.

The ability to code computer programs is considered an important part of literacy in today's society. This paper reports from a case study in two sixth-grade classes where Scratch coding was part of six mathematics lessons. The aim of the study was to investigate how Scratch coding affected students' interest development in coding and in mathematics. Data were collected using a convergent parallel mixed methods design. The results show a slight, but nevertheless significant, negative effect on students' average interest in coding, as well as in mathematics. Students attributed this to the level of difficulty and the tedious workflow, indicating that their waning interest was due to the prescriptive nature of tasks that offered neither a sense of accomplishment nor the chance for autonomous input. However, situational interest was triggered in off-task coding situations. These situations were not related to the mathematical coding tasks but to the use of existing Scratch games and animations. The findings point to the importance of design principles that allow students an opportunity to tinker, but also to a need for an increased focus on facilitating the development of design knowledge within teacher professional development.

Teachers cannot presume that their learners have the competence to use the technology brought to the classroom. Therefore, the learners' abilities to use technology may be a concern for teachers. This paper reports on digital competence through an analysis of designs for learning in design patterns, written by upper secondary teachers. Learning activities found in the design patterns were analysed with the aim to understand how teachers perceive the learners' digital competence when using technology. A framework that compromises digital competence was utilised for inferring the digital competencies. The qualitative analysis of these learning activities reveals that competences of information and data literacy, and of communication and collaboration predominate. By analysing the characteristics of learning activities and hence the teachers' ideas of technology use in teaching, it is concluded that design patterns can be used to identify the competences teachers believe are relevant for the learners to acquire. The result therefore involves aspects of how teachers perceive learners' digital competence when using technology in teaching.

Many changes in teaching practices (such as introduction of e-assessment) are initiated by school management, or by a lead teacher, but have direct impact on the learning designs of others. However, models of teachers as innovators, conducting evidence-based inquiry into their students' learning, view the teacher as initiator of change in their own practice (normally as individual). This paper addresses the question of whether such models can also be applied to change introduced by top-down processes. In this paper, we examine teacher inquiry in such a context. We discuss a case study in which we worked with the Head of Science (HoS) of a secondary school. The HoS designed a cross-curricular science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) project with 57 STEM teachers and introduced Google Forms as a tool for formative assessment. We supported the HoS to design and conduct an inquiry that involved all teachers. We examine the context and process of inquiry and how it was applied. Our findings provide insight into teachers' use of tools and representations when communicating about learning design, and the implications of this for the development of learning analytics tools. They also inform the development of a method for coordinating teacher inquiry in cross-curricular projects and, more generally, in the context of top-down introduction of change.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship of subject areas to teachers' technology integration. Educational technology research has often identified "culture clashes" to explain differences in technology use between subject areas. These clashes are frequently attributed to core features, values and beliefs held in the subject area cultures, but there has been little research analyzing the relationship between subject areas and integration. Using a validated path model as a conceptual framework, this paper presents an analysis of the relationship between three subject areas (English, Mathematics, Science) and known factors of teacher beliefs and readiness to use technology in teaching, which directly impact on secondary-level teachers' technology integration, over three years. Findings show that time and subject areas are both associated with teachers' readiness, but only subject areas are associated with teachers' beliefs. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

The ubiquitous nature of technology in the world has not yet translated into the ubiquitous use of technology to transform learning and teaching. Teachers lack the confidence and competence to integrate technology across a broad range of tools within a range of contexts. Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) has become a common framework to explore technology within teaching and teacher education. However, little research exists to explore the similarities and differences of TPACK between different teacher education programmes, within different countries or even different disciplines, especially in a secondary context. Using a self-report online survey, this study sought to compare and contrast TPACK results from pre-service teachers studying in secondary teacher education programmes in Australia and Israel. Findings suggest that TPACK is higher in Australia, and in both countries for those students who were aged over 26. There were no significant differences between gender and disciplines reported. The paper also discusses broad-scale implications for the future of research in TPACK.

Gamified Authentic Mobile Enquiry in Society (GAMES) is a GPS-supported mobile application for gamifying social enquiry learning in outdoor environments. Teachers are always the "educational innovation gatekeepers" in schools. This paper reports on a 3-year study in which the Stages of Concern model was employed as a quantitative diagnostic instrument to continuously understand and address the emerging concerns of 91 social humanities teachers (from 91 high schools in Hong Kong) about adopting GAMES in their teaching practice. With adequate interventions for addressing the participants' ongoing needs, their peak categorical concern shifted initially from "Management" (in Year 1) to "Consequence" (in Year 2), and finally to "Refocusing" (in Year 3). The results reveal that the participants largely intended to go on harnessing GAMES to facilitate outdoor social enquiry learning in their schools. This work provides the field with profound strategic insights into sustaining technological innovations in schooling from the perspective of teachers--an important stakeholder of education.

Parent involvement in and engagement with children's learning has been shown to strongly influence student achievement, engagement, motivation and school completion. However, parent involvement decreases once students reach middle school, as subject content gets harder, the number of teachers increases, and students are less likely to share their homework and learning with parents. To this end, the flipped learning (FL) approach has received growing attention, with evidence of improved higher order thinking and collaborative skills and increased transparency for parents. This paper explores school leader, parent, student and teacher perceptions of the FL approach, through the lens of a 1-year case study of two rural South Australian schools, in order to uncover how the approach affects parent engagement. Findings reveal that, whilst stakeholders feel that the flipped approach is beneficial for absent students, to reinforce content and increase student responsibility, it has not yet improved transparency for parents, with a disconnect between what schools think parents know and are engaging in, and the actual level of parent engagement in student learning. Recommendations for schools implementing the FL approach are provided against a bioecological model, adapted for this study.

In this paper, which is based on research from the EU-funded project Improving Progress through Formative Assessment in Science and Mathematics Education, we explore how iPads are used within formative assessment processes by six mathematics teachers and their classes in two secondary comprehensive schools in the Midlands of England. A design research approach is first used to develop and trial six lessons in which iPads are used in different ways within formative assessment processes. Through lesson observations, video analysis and teacher interviews we then examine how iPad technology contributes to these processes, the functions it performs and the distribution of activity between the main actors (teacher, technology and student). An analytic approach is developed which captures the interactions in visual representations, showing how the technology is often used as a form of communication but also performs more active functions which affect the role taken by the teacher in formative processes. The study offers insight into ways in which iPad technology contributes to effective student learning through formative assessment and introduces an analytic approach that may be useful for further studies.

Most studies of Augmented Reality (AR) in education have considered students' learning outcomes and motivation. Previous studies have revealed that AR has the potential to help students learn abstract conceptions in mathematics. In this paper, a series of statistics and probability lessons using AR installed on tablets was designed and developed to examine the effect of the AR technology by comparing the conceptions and learning approaches of junior high school students with different levels of self-efficacy. A total of 101 students were divided into two groups based on their mathematics learning self-efficacy. The analysis of the results shows that AR applications in mathematics courses can help students with higher self-efficacy to pay closer attention to higher level conceptions. It can also help higher self-efficacy students to apply more advanced strategies when learning mathematics.

This paper explores how maker pedagogies helped middle school students develop transferable competencies, such as creativity, problem solving, self-directed learning and citizenship skills. We offer an in-depth look at how purposeful or critical making related to bullying awareness can help struggling students develop positive attitudes related to their roles as contributing members of a classroom community of learners.

Learning design is a research field which studies how to best support teachers as designers of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) situations. Although substantial work has been done in the articulation of the learning design process, little is known about how learning designs are experienced by students and teachers, especially in the context of schools. This paper empirically examines if a teacher inquiry model, as a tool for systematic research by teachers into their own practice, facilitates the connection between the design and data-informed reflection on TEL interventions in two school communities. High school teachers participated in a learning design professional development program supported by a web-based community platform integrating a teacher inquiry tool (TILE). A multiple case study was conducted aimed at understanding: (a) current teacher practice and (b) teacher involvement in inquiry cycles of design and classroom implementations with technologies. Multiple data sources were used over a one year period including focus groups transcripts, teacher interview protocols, digital artifacts, and questionnaires. Sharing teacher-led inquiries together with learning analytics was perceived as being useful for connecting pedagogical intentions with the evaluation of their enactment with learners, and this differed from their current practice. Teachers' reflections about their designs focused on the time management of learning activities and their familiarity with the enactment and analytics tools. Results inform how technology can support teacher-led inquiry and collective reflective practice in schools.

The supposed benefits of teachers' use of information and communications technology (digital technology) are well reported throughout the academic literature--most often involving issues of enhanced learning outcomes, increased pupil engagement and more efficient management and organisation of learning. This paper uses survey data from 683 teachers in 24 secondary schools across the UK to analyse the factors influencing how these benefits are being experienced. In particular, the paper explores the complex relationships between teachers' perceptions of technology-related benefits and a range of individual, classroom, school and system-level issues. A number of mediating issues and influences are identified and discussed throughout these analyses. In particular, it is suggested that teachers' perceptions of the benefits of using technology are influenced more by institutional rather than individual characteristics. A number of possible reasons are discussed, highlighting the importance of social and cultural contexts of digital technology use in education. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Key to introducing information and communication technologies in museums is to support meaning-making activity in encounters with artefacts. The study presented in this paper is exploratory in nature and investigates the use of social and mobile technologies in school field trips as a means of enhancing the visitor experience. It is anchored in sociocultural perspectives of learning as meaning making, with a focus on mediating artefacts in the development of understanding. The Museum of London was selected as the site of the study and the participants were a Year 9 History class (13-14 years old) in a secondary school in Milton Keynes. The paper considers evidence of meaning making from students' online posts on Twitter (http://twitter.com) and activity on-site. Observational data, the visit's Twitter stream and post-visit interview data with the participants are presented and analysed. A mixed-method approach is employed to interpret the museum visit and examine young people's experience in the museum. Such an approach allows useful insights and shapes the understanding of how social and mobile technologies have an impact on the social dynamics of a school trip to a museum. Specifically, it explains the role of such tools in fostering the social interactions around museum artefacts and ultimately the process of shared construction of meaning making. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

This paper tackles two issues which are closely related: transition from pre-entry learning to studying at university and the role blended learning strategies might have in supporting this transition. It draws on the pilot delivery of two credit-bearing modules which were delivered in two pre-entry institutions. The modules followed two different models in terms of their alignment to the pre-entry curriculum and in their mode of delivery. They were evaluated through questionnaires and focus groups with students. Both university tutors and coordinators at the schools were also interviewed in order to identify barriers in the process from their perspectives. This paper contributes to research in this field by identifying, from the key stakeholders of students' and deliverers' vantage points, factors that are specific to the blended learning process and contribute to a more structured and positive transition experience for the students. It looks at how blended methodologies can enhance the transition process, as well as what some of the barriers might be. As a consequence, the paper will provide some suggestions as to how institutions may overcome some of those issues identified in order to replicate the practice successfully.

In Hong Kong, onscreen marking (OSM) is superseding paper-based marking (PBM) across the entire national examinations system. This paper describes a qualitative study of the attitudes of Liberal Studies markers towards OSM. This becomes a compulsory subject in Hong Kong's new senior secondary school curriculum to be first examined in 2012, with a candidature of 80 000 compared to the current candidatures of 3300. The current study describes semi-structured interviews with Liberal Studies markers who provided in-depth opinions on key aspects of the OSM process. Markers were positive about many aspects of the new system including: the advantages of marking by single question rather than by whole paper; improved reliability using control scripts; and relief from administrative tasks associated with PBM. There are, nonetheless, aspects of the new system that markers are unhappy with, primarily logistical, involving travel to marking centres and marking at fixed times when they are tired. Reading onscreen was also an issue. In summary, 43% of markers stated that they preferred the status quo of PBM, 35% stated they felt OSM was better, while 21% were ambivalent. While OSM has not yet been wholeheartedly accepted by markers, its potential advantages are beginning to be appreciated.

This paper gives a brief introduction to the project called Education Technology Capacity Building Plan for All Primary and Secondary Teachers now being implemented in China. Because information and communication technology skills training cannot match the demand of teachers' professional development, the Chinese Ministry of Education established the education technology standard for teachers and launched the project. This paper introduced the features of standard training and testing, and discusses the output and influence of the project.

This paper reports on a completed field study that examined the usability and effectiveness of learning objects designed for Australian and New Zealand primary and secondary schools. It focuses on student engagement by observing the ways students interacted with learning objects and by listening to what they said about them. Questions that guided the field study included the following: Could the students use the learning objects easily? Did they enjoy the experience? Did they engage with the intended learning? These questions are examined with reference to students at different levels of schooling, and examples drawn from the fieldwork illustrate that, while some learning objects achieved their potential as engaging multimedia educational resources, others fell short. The paper provides a detailed examination of two learning objects to reveal what worked and what created barriers or subverted the intended learning. In particular, it explores interest, challenge and importance as elements that contributed to engagement and socially constructed learning.

Due to the increasing digitisation, interest in digital personalised learning (DPL) continues to grow. Many empirical studies on the effect of adaptive tools have used a wide variety of conceptualisations and operationalisations of DPL. This systematic review aims to address the lack of consensus by presenting an analysis of empirical studies on technology for DPL in primary and secondary education. The work is guided by the following questions: (1) What are some different conceptualisations used in DPL research? (2) What types of tools are used in the studies and how are they implemented? (3) What is the current evidence on the impact of DPL with regard to student outcomes considering the nature of the current studies? A Boolean search string was used in the databases Web of Science and ERIC, resulting in a dataset containing 6,908 papers. A screening based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria yielded 53 papers. Our findings revealed a great diversity in DPL conceptualisations, with several authors not defining the concept and others providing information regarding different elements such as technology, personalisation, personalisation target, personalisation source, personalisation method and personalisation outcomes. In line with these differences in conceptualisation of DPL, several DPL tools were used across the studies. Concerning the impact of DPL, a positive trend was observed on learning outcomes, although methodological differences need to be considered. The review ends with guidelines for future research. Practitioner notesWhat is already known There are many definitions and terms concerning DPL, resulting in a lack of consensus in conceptualisation.There is a wide variety of DPL tools with different adaptive dimensions.Many authors emphasise the benefits of DPL in educational practice including a possible impact on learning gains.What this paper adds Contribution to a thorough understanding of the conceptualisation of DPL.Insights into the diversity in DPL tools building on a framework of adaptivity by Vandewaetere and Clarebout (2014) and adds focus on tool implementation as a context element.Insight into the impact of DPL taking into account study design and outcome indicators.Implications for practice and/or policy An overview of the affordances of DPL to educational researchers, educational policy makers, and teachers is provided that can encourage them to think about its opportunities for everyday practice.Concrete suggestions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online data collection in academic research might be replacing paper-and-pencil surveys or questionnaires in the near future. This paper discusses the advantages and limitations of online data collection, with particular reference to the conduct of two qualitative studies involving upper secondary school teachers and students in Iceland in 2002. Email was used for contacting the participants to ask them to visit a designated website in order to complete the questionnaire. Some problems arose with the use of an online web-based programme for data collection. Among them were the unreliability of the email address lists and the lack of willingness, particularly among students, to participate. The paper concludes that while online surveys can access large and geographically distributed populations and achieve quick returns, they may no longer be as universally appealing as was once believed. Reaching the population sample remains a problem in online as well as in traditional data collection.

In a mathematical examination on paper, partial credit is normally awarded for an answer that is not correct, but, nevertheless, contains some of the correct working. Assessment on computer normally marks an incorrect answer wrong and awards no marks. This can lead to discrepancies between marks awarded for the same examination given in the two different media. The current paper presents possible solutions to this problem and the results of experiments designed to test how successful these solutions are in practice. In light of the findings, developments to the assessment engine have been made and some questions redesigned for use in real automated examinations. The results were obtained as part of the Project for Assessments in Scotland using Information Technology (PASS-IT): a major collaborative programme involving the leading educational agencies in Scotland (see http://www.pass-it.org.uk for more details). PASS-IT has demonstrated that the computer can help measure lower order student skill profiles provided the computer assessment package is sophisticated enough. Optional steps are required to mimic partial credit; randomisation of parameters is needed for practice and the avoidance of copying; the ability to capture and mark automatically mathematical expressions and short free text responses; and the delivery in a number of feedback modes are all vital ingredients of an automatic assessment system. PASS-IT has shown how to ensure that education drives technology and not vice versa. Finally, collaboration has been paramount within PASS-IT and should continue. No single group has all the keys to unlock the future of computer-aided assessment. Scotland is well placed to move forward and e-assess where its students e-learn in a large range of subjects such as those delivered via the SCHOLAR Programme (see http://scholar.hw.ac.uk). It should be done too by ensuring that teachers remain central to the learning cycle by supporting the demanding work they do through the supply of suitably filtered data on student performance. Special educational needs can also be addressed more effectively by the use of technology.

The escape room game is an example of digital game‐based learning that has become a popular learning tool in recent years. However, not enough is known about enthusiasm for and promising reports of the use of escape rooms in education. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of escape room game‐based civics education on eighth grade students' learning motivation, critical thinking and flow experience. To explore the effects, a quasi‐experimental pretest–posttest with a control group design method was employed. The participants were 76 eighth grade students. The subjects were divided into two groups: the experimental group, which used an escape room game, and the control group which used the Google classroom digital platform. The results of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the two groups in favour of the experimental group in terms of learning motivation. There was a significant difference between the two groups' critical thinking in favour of the experimental group for the ‘assumption’ and ‘interpretation’ subscales of the critical thinking test. Regarding flow experience, the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. Finally, based on the research results, suggestions are made for the future use of escape room games for teaching and for future research. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Escape room games have substantial potential for enhancing learning, motivation and critical thinking. Studies promoting mental flow, integrating complex skills and using multiple strategies in a game context are limited. What this paper adds Students' mind flow experience and critical thinking were enhanced through escape room games. The escape room game made the learning process more varied, triggered students' interest, and improved their learning motivation. This study compared the effect of escape room game‐based learning with the Google Classroom platform, not the traditional teaching approach. Implications for practice and/or policy Escape room games offer learners innovative opportunities to develop critical thinking skills. Using an appropriately designed escape room as a game‐based learning environment is an effective and motivating game‐based learning approach. The realistic and interactive nature of escape room games is an important factor that influences learners' mind‐flow experiences. What is already known about this topic Escape room games have substantial potential for enhancing learning, motivation and critical thinking. Studies promoting mental flow, integrating complex skills and using multiple strategies in a game context are limited. What this paper adds Students' mind flow experience and critical thinking were enhanced through escape room games. The escape room game made the learning process more varied, triggered students' interest, and improved their learning motivation. This study compared the effect of escape room game‐based learning with the Google Classroom platform, not the traditional teaching approach. Implications for practice and/or policy Escape room games offer learners innovative opportunities to develop critical thinking skills. Using an appropriately designed escape room as a game‐based learning environment is an effective and motivating game‐based learning approach. The realistic and interactive nature of escape room games is an important factor that influences learners' mind‐flow experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research and development of information and communication technology ( ICT)-supported learning for people with disabilities has not received adequate attention. It is also difficult to access research findings and developments in this field. Under the ENABLE Network of ICT Supported Learning for Disabled People (2011-2014) project, an emerging European Union reference point portal for end-users will provide this information for a broad audience. In the design phase of the project idea, the authors of this paper conducted a review of papers indexed in Web of Science to provide a needs assessment and a design template for the project objectives. The results of the search clearly showed that ICT-supported learning for people with special educational needs is in the domain of the educational technology journals, with more papers published in the British Journal of Educational Technology than in any other journal. This paper presents the results of a content analysis of all papers published from 1970 to 2011 in seven educational technology journals indexed in Web of Science. More papers were published from 2006 to 2011 (44.7%) than during any other of five periods examined. Findings in terms of ICT intervention, disability groups, groups of study participants by relationship with ICT, and research design, together with trends in published studies in terms of mainstreaming and inclusion, are presented. The main objective of the study was to identify the level of inclusion through analysis of educational context (special schools [30.51%], mainstream schools [28.81%] and general support for life [40.68%]). Based on content analysis, ICT interventions were classified into the two categories of technical intervention in the pedagogical context (62.71% of all papers published) and technical intervention in the wider context (37.29% of all papers published), with nine paper types identified: papers on ICT access, papers on teaching and learning methods, papers on development and testing of ICT solutions, reviews, assessments, papers on inclusion, papers on behavioural and social development, papers on use of information technology and papers on interaction. Papers were also categorised according to types of disability and according to groups of study participants by relationship with ICT. Published papers were divided into four categories by research design: descriptive (49.15%), developmental (26.27%), experimental (17.8%), and developmental and experimental (6.78%). During the period from 1970 to 2000, papers examined design of learning materials with regard to particular categories of disability and particular accessibility needs, while papers published after 2000 also discussed universal design. Based on the review, the authors of this paper have identified a need for application of universal design principles in research and development of learning environments to provide equal accessibility and inclusive education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]