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From among the many research findings regarding procedural justice reported in recent years has emerged a phenomenon that is sufficiently robust to be considered a principle of organizational behavior: Fair procedures enhance acceptance or organizational outcomes. Two questions arise from this discussion: 1) How do people define 'fair procedures'? and 2) What specific organizational outcomes are affected? Topics discussed in this article include structural determinants of procedural justice; interpersonal determinants of procedural justice; outcome valence; the limits of voice; voice and social sensitivity must be sincere; When do people follow interpersonally fair procedures?; training managers in procedural justice; promoting procedural justice: making professional football fair; and the dangers of violating procedural justice. The authors find that it is clear that procedural justice has emerged from the awkward intellectual adolescent it was considered to be only a few years ago.

In this article, the basic principle propounded is that teams should be composed of individuals who can effectively carry out external boundary activity. The central argument is that teams need people who can bridge to the outside--people who can get resources, negotiate agreements, and know who to contact for expertise. Composing a team to deal with external issues is increasingly important for a broad range of teams. The authors assert that the external activities of interdependent organization teams are related to their performance. They also assert that it is not simply the frequency of external communication that is important but rather the content of that communication. The first step in designing a team to meet external demand is to develop an understanding of the key resources members must acquire from other groups, learn the expectations others have for the group, and understand how the group's product fits into the broader strategic initiative of the firm. The authors believe that the lack of progress toward understanding group composition has come about because much of the research has been done with groups that do not have meaningful external connections.

In this chapter, the author aims to propose principles which could serve as guidelines for managers in selecting and implementing effective management practices outside their home country. Because third millennium managers are global managers, they have to learn about cultural differences, and how these differences shape the most effective managerial practices. The development of sensitivity to others begins with self-knowledge. Managers who learn about their own motives and cultural values can understand what motivates employees in other cultures. The main principle that should direct managers of the global world proposes the adoption of those effective managerial practices that best fit the cultural values of the organizations where they are implemented. This principle is supported by three sub-principles: self-knowledge; the identification of cultural values of different countries; and understanding of the meaning ascribed to various managerial practices by people with distinct cultural backgrounds. Successful global leaders are those who adopt these principles and use them as guidelines for implementing managerial approaches around the globe.

Information technology can serve as a significant catalyst for organizational change. The impact of information technology can improve operating efficiencies across the organization and improve the communication processes and decision-making of employees. The use of information technology for transaction-processing systems and enterprise resource-planning systems can greatly enhance the operational efficiency of organizational processes. Information technology offers organizations opportunities to change the competitive landscape by more effectively defining the dimensions of competition. Difficulties in implementing information technology successfully can influence efficiency, communication, and competitiveness. Federal Express (FedEx) has utilized information technology to gain large-scale efficiencies in business processes, enhance its communication and decision-making processes, and change the industry structure to its advantage. Implementation of technology continues to be a challenge for all companies. The tremendous potential for improvements through information technology is only fully realized when existing organizational processes, incentives, and culture are reflected in the implementation process. Successful use of information technology involves strong organizational commitment and a clear identification of the role information technology will play.

Business performance has been shown to be associated with the following organizational behaviors: coordination; commitment; competence; communication; and creativity. The story of Apple Computer illustrates the tendency of all organizations to develop inertia in the face of success. The tight alignment of the facets and strategy of an organization leads to a distinctive and persistent pattern of behavior resistant to change. Organizations change when leaders use environmental pressures, poor performance or the prospect of poor performance, to develop dissatisfaction with the status quo. Successful change managers lead a process that approximates the seven steps described in this chapter. They mobilize energy for change, develop a new compelling direction, identify organizational barriers to implementing the new strategy, develop a task-aligned vision of how the organization will operate in through coaching, and continuously monitor change. In large multi-unit corporations the responsibility for change lies with leaders at every level, not just with corporate top management. The capacity to lead an organization through change is increasingly important as the pace of competition and change increases.

According to the author, people will be most creative when they are passionate about what they are doing. Such high levels of intrinsic motivation are influenced both by a person's basic interest in a particular kind of work and by the work environment surrounding the person. Managers can support creative productivity by matching people to projects on the basis of interest as well as skill, by using rewards that recognize competence and support further involvement in the work, and by establishing a work environment across the organization that removes the barriers and enhances the supports to active, collaborative, intrinsic involvement in the work. A considerable body of research over the past 25 years (conducted with both children and adults) has demonstrated that external pressures in the work environment, also called extrinsic motivators, can decrease intrinsic motivation and, as a result, can decrease creativity.

According to the author, it is almost always true that well-made decisions are more likely to produce the desired results than decisions taken in a more haphazard way. The principle that effective decision-making results in effective decisions, as well as the implications that flow from this principle, are the focus of this chapter. This principle applies to a very broad category of decision faced by individuals, groups, and organizations: decisions that have multiple objectives and important consequences for those who make them. High-quality decision-making procedures are fairly easy to describe but hard to do because they require people to work to the limits of their abilities. In this chapter, the author propounds seven steps to making good decisions. The basic principle underlying these seven steps is simple: complex, crucial, non-routine decisions which reflect these procedures are more likely than other methods to lead to satisfactory outcomes.

Social theorists have long suggested that participation influences human behavior by 1) involving participants directly in ongoing processes, thereby securing their commitment to participatory outcomes through the 'sense of ownership' stimulated by their personal involvement, or by 2) providing participants the opportunity to exchange and collect information, and to become more fully informed and knowledgeable about ongoing activities and participatory results (e.g., Pateman, 1970). Organizational researchers have similarly speculated that participation might influence behavior in organizations through two distinct mechanisms, one termed motivational and the other cognitive. Individual studies of participation's motivational effects have sometimes reported evidence of positive effects. However, more generalizable evidences suggests that participation's usefulness as a motivational tool is often quite limited. Managers facing problems with workforce motivation are better advised to look for solutions in such practices as goal-setting, job redesign, and incentive payment. Structuring participatory sessions specifically to encourage the exchange of information should have additional positive effects. Managers seeking ways to improve the distribution of information and knowledge are well advised to consider participatory processes.

The organizational structure should be designed to fit the organizational strategy. This is the Principle of Designing Structure to Fit Strategy--the meta-principle of effective organizational structure. The structure that is most effective for an organization is one that fits its strategy (Chandler, 1962). Strategy determines the levels of four contingency factors: organizational size, innovation, diversification, and geographical diversity. These contingency factors, in turn, determine the nature of the tasks that confront members of the organization. Tasks can themselves vary on two dimensions: uncertainty and interdependence. Task uncertainty and task interdependence determine the mechanisms required to coordinate effectively the tasks. These coordination mechanisms underlied the different types of structure that are required to fit the strategy. The causal chain is: strategy, contingencies, task, coordination mechanism, and structure. The author examines the cases of product development at Toyota, and product divisions at Nipont (a pseudonym for a real Japanese company) to more fully understand how these principles work in practice.

When discussing trust with managers in organizations, what they most want to know is how to increase trust within their organizations. This chapter focuses specifically on how leaders can create trust with their followers. The author concludes that integrity and competence are the most critical characteristics of a leader in order to create trust in their subordinates. Integrity plus honesty leads to the development of moral trust, and competence leads to the development of practical trust. The development of trust, also, depends on the subordinate's personality, the knowledge of the leader's past actions, and the processing of that knowledge and information to assess the moral and practical aspects of trust. In general, trust leads to many beneficial outcomes. In order to increase trust, leaders need to ensure integrity and honesty in all their words and actions as well as maintain high levels of competencies in their areas of responsibility. Furthermore, leaders should create an organizational culture characterized by high trust and high performance to encourage trusting and high-performing behavior in their employees.

The manner in which power is enacted usually involves influence behavior by the agent. Specific types of influence behavior are called influence tactics. This chapter examines several influence tactics commonly used in organizations. The relative effectiveness of the various influence tactics will be described and the conditions for their successful use will be identified. The author concludes that knowledge about power and influence tactics is useful for people who must gain cooperation and support from others to perform their job effectively. To influence people, it is essential to develop and maintain a substantial amount of expert and referent power. In addition, it is desirable to have sufficient position power to back up one's personal power. People who exercise power in an arrogant and manipulative manner are likely to engender resentment and resistance. The outcome of an influence attempt depends on what tactics are used, how skillfully they are used, and the context in which they are used. In general, the most useful tactics for eliciting commitment are consultation, inspirational appeals, and strong forms of rational persuasion. Before making an influence attempt that involves an important objective, it is essential to diagnose the situation carefully and select tactics that are mutually compatible and appropriate for the situation.

In this article, the authors espouse that intra-team conflict should be managed using collaboration. Conflict researchers (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995, 1997) have recently found that while non-task conflicts based on personality clashes and interpersonal antagonism are detrimental to team performance and morale, task conflicts can be beneficial if managed collaboratively. The authors' central argument is that collaboration can benefit both task and non-task conflict, but that task conflict should be actively managed (not necessarily eliminated) through collaboration in the work setting whereas non-task conflict should be collaboratively managed off-line, outside the work setting, (or avoided) to ensure higher performance of teams. There are three fundamental steps in managing team conflict through collaboration. The first step is to identify the type of intra-team conflict. The second is to identify appropriate collaboration strategies. The third is to identify useful collaborative techniques. Topics also discussed include identifying the type of intra-team conflict, collaboration strategies and intra-team conflict, collaborative techniques, and the role of negative emotions.

In this article, the authors describe three antecedents that help groups to be fast, have high conflict, and still get along. These are: creating collective intuition, stimulating task-related conflict, and driving the pace of action. They argue that each of these antecedents consists of a cluster of tactics that shape group process. These tactics are interrelated such that they work with one another, supporting each other and offering synergies in group process. They also describe the pivotal role of the leader in shaping the group process that emerges. The authors assert that a great group process is one that is fast, that includes conflict, and where group members get along. The antecedent conditions discussed include sets of tactics around building collective intuition, stimulating quick conflict, and setting the pace of the group. The authors use research on groups and comparative examples from United States President John Kennedy's cabinet during the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban missile crisis as well as from two entrepreneurial companies.

It is difficult to conceive of a society populated with people who are completely unmoved by the respect, approval, and reproof of others. (Bandura, 1986: 235) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pay for performance systems make major contributions to performance through two main mechanisms. First, they positively influence the motivation to perform. Second, they impact the attraction and retention patterns of organizations, thereby affecting the caliber of individuals available to perform. A number of different pay delivery plans qualify as pay for performance systems, although they vary with respect to how closely they tie pay to performance. Pay for performance systems can deliver monetary rewards at the individual, small group, and/or divisional or organizational level. Evidence suggests that pay for performance at each of these levels can positively impact performance. Aspects of pay performance discussed include requirements to make the principle work, and possible exceptions to the principle of paying for performance. The authors conclude that pay for performance works. It communicates what factors are most important to the company's success and focuses employees' attention and effort on those factors. It is fair, because it pays more to those who contribute more. In turn, it attracts individuals who can perform at high levels and, by recognizing and rewarding them for doing so, makes them want to remain.

Goal-setting is among the most valid and practical theories of employee motivation. The theory states that the simplest most direct motivational explanation of why some people perform better than others is because they have different performance goals. Specific challenging goals are motivational regardless of whether they are self-set, set participatively, or assigned. If the person has the knowledge and skill necessary to perform the task, outcome goals should be set. If the requisite knowledge or skill is lacking, learning goals should be set. No other theory of motivation has been found to be as consistently effective in the workplace as goal-setting. The following sub-principles are discussed: setting challenging specific goals, providing feedback in relation to goals, gaining goal commitment, and providing resources needed to attain the goal. Exceptions to the principles and issues in implementation are also discussed.

In the management literature, empowerment is commonly associated with a set of managerial techniques or the act of sharing power with others. More specifically, empowerment can be defined as a psychological state where four cognitions of the individual (meaning, competence, choice, impact) act in concert to foster a proactive, positive, and self-confident orientation towards one's work. To best understand empowerment, it is important to view notions of power and control from a psychological perspective.The actual process of empowerment can be viewed along six stages that include the psychological state of an empowering experience, its antecedent conditions, and its behavioral consequences. Empowerment interventions must take into careful consideration the individual, their personal assessments, and the task. To understand how empowerment works in the real world, the authors look at two positive examples and one negative example. The examples are Richard Branson of the Virgin Group, Jack Welch of General Electric, and Frank Borman of Eastern Airlines.

Among the mechanisms of self-influence, none is more focal or pervading than belief of personal efficacy. Perceived efficacy occupies a pivotal role in causal structures because it affects human functioning not only directly, but through its impact on other important classes of determinants. Efficacy beliefs affect self-motivation through their impact on goals and aspirations. Perceived efficacy, similarly, plays an influential role in the incentive and disincentive potential of outcome expectations. Self-efficacy beliefs are constructed from four principal sources of information: 1) enactive mastery experiences 2) vicarious experiences 3) verbal persuasion and 4) physiological and affective states. Guided mastery provides one of the most effective ways of cultivating competencies. Competency in problem-solving requires the development of thinking skills for how to seek reliable information and put it to good use. People have the capacity for self-directedness through the exercise of self-influence. To achieve this, they must develop skills in regulating the cognitive, motivational, affective, and social determinants of their functioning.

Among academic scholars of organizational behavior, there are three complementary approaches to understanding the turnover process: 1) Monitor job attitudes and withdrawal cognitions 2) Monitor shocks and paths, as well as job attitudes and global withdrawal cognitions and 3) Monitoring for signs of voluntary quitting may not be enough. Based on these three approaches, the authors clarify how turnover might best be understood and managed. First, each of the three approaches is described, and their corroborating statistical evidence summarized. Second, the authors identify what signs to monitor. Third, action implications are offered. Fourth, notable exceptions are explained.

This article focuses on the general principle that mentally challenging work is the key to job satisfaction. The most effective way an organization can promote job satisfaction of its employees is to enhance the mental challenge in their jobs, and the most consequential way most individuals can improve their own job satisfaction is to seek out mentally challenging work. Organizations would be well advised to place more importance on job satisfaction. It is related to many outcomes that individuals and organizations find important. Some of the outcomes that job satisfaction have been linked to are: life satisfaction, job performance, and withdrawal behaviors. Topics discussed in this article include the Job Characteristics Model (JCM); measurement of job characteristics; research support; how to increase mental challenge in jobs; employees with low growth need strength; employees who value other job attributes; personality; and job satisfaction of public school teachers.

The concern for workplace learning and investment in training by industry and government has generated an explosion of training research from many disciplines. In this article, the authors discuss four general training phases: 1) Analyze training needs 2) Design and develop instruction 3) Implement training and 4) Evaluate the training. The authors also extract from the research generated over the last two decades several guiding principles and guidelines in support of each phase. The authors advise that training should be designed systematically. They observe that recent advances in cognition and learning science and findings of training research, coupled with what we know about best training practices and sound instructional design, provide all of the ingredients required for organizations to accomplish their learning needs.

Interviews are used as one in a set of employee selection and recruitment tools. Interviews are flexible, and can be used to accomplish multiple purposes, such as recruitment, introductions, screening out unsuitable candidates, and so on. This flexibility can also be a hindrance, however, because research on decision-making shows that decision processes are susceptible to myriad cognitive, motivational, and contextual influences that may degrade the quality of the final decision. Increasing interview structure can help managers achieve their recruitment or selection goals by helping to minimize the impact of extraneous influences on interviewers' and applicants' decision processes. Structuring interviews introduces some standardization in procedures to make the judgments that follow less variable. Structuring interviews to balance the need for standardization with the need for interviewer and applicant discretion can ensure both organizations and applicants get the most out of the process.

The general principle propounded in this chapter is that organizations should select employees based on their conscientiousness and emotional stability. A sub-principle is that organizations should also select on agreeableness, extraversion, or openness to experience when they have been shown to be relevant for specific criteria or requirements of the job. Hiring applicants who are more intelligent will result in employees who are capable of acquiring more work-related facts and principles as well as greater procedural knowledge and skill. Hiring applicants who are more conscientious and emotionally stable will result in employees who are predisposed to exert greater effort at work, who persist at work for a longer period of time, are able to more effectively cope with stress, and are more committed to work. These employees are also likely to be responsible and helpful to others at work, are more likely to remain on the job, and are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors at work.

Higher intelligence leads to better job performance. The increases in job performance resulting from hiring on general mental ability (GMA) have high economic value for organizations. Higher intelligence causes higher job performance primarily because it causes people to learn job knowledge faster and to learn more of it. Intelligence is also used to solve performance-related problems, independent of prior job knowledge. The primary requirement that an organization must meet to make GMA-based hiring work well is the ability to attract job applicants and to retain them once they are hired. Despite beliefs to the contrary, hiring on job experience is inferior to hiring on GMA. Though GMA is the most important determinant of job performance, it is not the only determinant. Firms should use other procedures along with GMA.