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The triarchic model (Patrick et al., 2009) conceptualizes psychopathy as a multidimensional construct encompassing three biobehavioral dimensions: meanness, boldness, and disinhibition. Meanness entails low empathy, shallow affect, and lack of remorse, and is associated with poor facial emotion recognition; however, the mechanistic processes contributing to these deficits are unclear. Emotional face processing can be examined on a neurophysiological level using event-related potentials (ERPs) such as N170, P200, and LPP. No quantitative review to date has examined the extent to which amplitude of these ERP components may be modulated by psychopathic traits. The current study performed random-effects model meta-analyses of nine studies (N = 1131) which examined affective face processing ERPs in individuals with psychopathic traits to provide an overall effect size for the association between meanness, boldness, and disinhibition and N170, P200, and LPP amplitudes across studies. Analyses were also conducted examining potential moderators and publication bias. N170 amplitudes were significantly smaller (r =.18) among individuals high in meanness when processing fearful faces. Significant effects were not found for N170 amplitude when processing angry or happy faces, nor for LPP and P200 amplitudes across stimulus types. Additionally, significant effects were not found for the association between N170 amplitude and other dimensions of psychopathy. Meta-regression analyses indicated the manipulation of facial stimuli was significant in explaining some between-study heterogeneity of the meanness N170-fear model. No evidence of publication bias was found. Diminished amplitude of the N170 when viewing fear faces appears to be a neurophysiological marker of psychopathic meanness. Deficits in early encoding of faces may account for empathy deficits characteristic of psychopathy. • A meta-analysis of the published literature indicated that psychopathic meanness is associated with neural deficits in early encoding of faces • These deficits appear to be specific to the processing of fear faces • These deficits do not appear to extend to other dimensions of psychopathy • Failure to encode facial affect in others may be a neurobiological mechanism contributing to lack of empathy in psychopathic individuals [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The N170 component is not sensitive to self-face processing. • Differential processing of self-face is reflected in a lower P200 amplitude. • N250 is not only modulated by self-face, but also by face familiarity in general. • There is an advantage for self-face recognition, possibly mediated by attention. Abstract This study aimed to elucidate whether distinct early processes underlie the perception of our own face. Alternatively, self-face perception might rely on the same processes that realize the perception of highly familiar faces. To this end, we recorded EEG activity while participants performed a facial recognition task in which they had to discriminate between their own face, a friend's face, and an unknown face. We analyzed the event-related potentials (ERPs) to characterize the time course of neural processes involved in different stages of self-face recognition. Our results show that the N170 component was not sensitive to self-face. In contrast, the subsequent P200 component distinguished between self-face and the other faces. Finally, N250 amplitude increased as a function of face familiarity. Overall, our data suggest that self-face recognition neither emerges at the first stage of the encoding of facial information nor at a later stage when familiarity is processed. Rather, the distinctive processing of self-face arises at an intermediate stage (˜200 ms), as indicated by a lower P200 amplitude. This could be taken as an indicator that self-face recognition is facilitated by a reduced need for attentional resources. In sum, our results suggest that self-face is more than a highly familiar face. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety is a negative emotion that affects various aspects of people’s daily life. To explain why individuals with high anxiety tend to make suboptimal decisions, we suggest that their learning ability might play an important role. Regarding that anxiety modulates both outcome expectation and attention allocation, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the function of feedback learning should be sensitive to individual level of anxiety. However, previous studies that directly examined this hypothesis were scarce. In this study, forty-two Chinese participants were assigned to a high-trait anxiety (HTA) group or a low-trait anxiety (LTA) group according to their scores in the Trait form of Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T). Both groups finished a reward learning task in which two options were associated with different winning probabilities. The event-related potential (ERP) elicited by outcome feedback during the task was recorded and analyzed. Behavioral results revealed that, when the winning probability was 80% for one option and 20% for another, the HTA group chose the 80% winning option less often than the LTA group at the initial stage (i.e., first 20 trials) of the task, but there was no between-group difference in total number of choice. In addition, HTA participants took more time to make decisions in the 80/20 condition than in the 50/50 condition, but this effect was insignificant in the LTA group. ERP results indicated that anxiety affects learning in two ways. First, compared to their LTA counterparts, HTA participants showed a smaller feedback-related negativity (FRN) in response to negative feedback, indicating the impact of anxiety on outcome expectation. Second, HTA participants showed a larger P3 component in the 80/20 condition than in the 50/50 condition, indicating the impact of anxiety on attention allocation. Accordingly, we suggest that individuals’ ability of feedback learning could be negatively modulated by anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice enhances memory retention more than re-studying. The underlying mechanisms of this retrieval practice effect have remained widely unclear. According to the elaborative retrieval hypothesis, activation of elaborative information occurs to a larger extent during testing than re-studying. In contrast, the episodic context account has suggested that recollecting prior episodic information (especially the temporal context) contributes to memory retention. To adjudicate the distinction between these two accounts, the present study used the classical retrieval practice effect paradigm to compare retrieval practice and elaborative study. In an initial behavioral experiment, retrieval practice produced greater retention than elaboration and re-studying in a one-week delayed test. In a subsequent event-related potential (ERP) experiment, retrieval practice resulted in reliably superior accuracy in the delayed test compared to elaborative study. In the ERPs, a frontally distributed subsequent memory effect (SME), starting at 300 ms, occurred in the elaborative study condition, but not in the retrieval practice condition. A parietal SME emerged in the retrieval practice condition from 500 to 700 ms, but was absent in the elaborative study condition. After 700 ms, a late SME was present in the retrieval practice condition, but not in the elaborative study condition. Moreover, SMEs lasted longer in retrieval practice than in elaboration. The frontal SME in the elaborative study condition might be related to semantic processing or working memory-based elaboration, whereas the parietal and widespread SME in the retrieval practice condition might be associated with episodic recollection processes. These findings contradict the elaborative retrieval theory, and suggest that contextual recollection rather than activation of semantic information contributes to the retrieval practice effect, supporting the episodic context account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is widely recognized that emotions impact an individual’s ability to perform in a given task. However, little is known about how emotion impacts the various aspects of cognitive - motor performance. We recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) and chronometric responses from twenty-six participants while they performed a cognitive-motor oddball task in regard to four categories of emotional stimuli (high-arousing positive-valence, low-arousing positive-valence, high-arousing negative-valence, and low-arousing negative-valence) as “deviant” stimuli. Six chronometric responses (reaction time, press time, return time, choice time, movement time, and total time) and three ERP components (P2, N2 and late positive potential) were measured. Results indicated that reaction time was significantly affected by the presentation of emotional stimuli. Also observed was a negative relationship between N2 amplitude and elements of performance featuring reaction time in the low-arousing positive-valence condition. This study provides further evidence that emotional stimuli influence cognitive-motor performance in a specific manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The perceptual system makes a specific prediction regarding the timing of impending, self-initiated sensations to facilitate the attenuation of these sensations. The current study used electroencephalography to investigate whether temporal expectations can be modified with training. Participants underwent a button-press-for-tone task and evoked responses to the tones were measured. Fifty participants were randomly assigned to receive repeated exposure (training) to either immediate tones, or tones delayed by 100 ms. Pre-training, N1 amplitude to delayed tones was significantly larger compared to immediate tones. However, while training to the immediate tone maintained a significant difference in N1 amplitude between the immediate and delayed tones post-training, this difference was eliminated when trained to the delayed tone. This suggests that participants’ neural expectations regarding the anticipated timing of self-generated sensations can be modified with behavioural training. This result has implications for alleviating the subnormal sensory attenuation which has been observed in patients with schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Visual stimulation is frequently employed in electroencephalographic (EEG) research. However, despite its widespread use, no studies have thoroughly evaluated how the morphology of the visual event-related potentials (ERPs) varies according to the spatial location of stimuli. Hence, the purpose of this study was to perform a detailed retinotopic mapping of visual ERPs. We recorded EEG activity while participants were visually stimulated with 60 pattern-reversing checkerboards placed at different polar angles and eccentricities. Our results show five pattern-reversal ERP components. C1 and C2 components inverted polarity between the upper and lower hemifields. P1 and N1 showed higher amplitudes and shorter latencies to stimuli located in the contralateral lower quadrant. In contrast, P2 amplitude was enhanced and its latency was reduced by stimuli presented in the periphery of the upper hemifield. The retinotopic maps presented here could serve as a guide for selecting optimal visuo-spatial locations in future ERP studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Musical expertise enhances the neural basis of rapid auditory perceptual learning. [•] In musicians, rapid plasticity pronounces in auditory cortex. [•] Rapid plasticity in deviant ERPs occurred without focused attention in musicians. [•] Parietal ERP attenuated after focused attention in musicians and nonmusicians. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] We investigated the effect of complexity on ERP responses to task-irrelevant stimuli. [•] Complex irrelevant stimuli elicited P3a in both auditory and visual modalities. [•] Simple irrelevant stimuli among complex task related stimuli did not elicit P3a. [•] Complex irrelevant visual stimuli also elicited the N2b component. [•] Rareness and irrelevance of stimuli alone are not sufficient for eliciting P3a. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Correctly processing rapid sequences of sounds is essential for developmental milestones, such as language acquisition. We investigated the sensitivity of two-month-old infants to violations of a temporal regularity, by recording event-related brain potentials (ERPs) in an auditory oddball paradigm from 36 waking and 40 sleeping infants. Standard tones were presented at a regular 300ms inter-stimulus interval (ISI). One deviant, otherwise identical to the standard, was preceded by a 100ms ISI. Two other deviants, presented with the standard ISI, differed from the standard in their spectral makeup. We found significant differences between ERP responses elicited by the standard and each of the deviant sounds. The results suggest that the ability to extract both temporal and spectral regularities from a sound sequence is already functional within the first few months of life. The scalp distribution of all three deviant-stimulus responses was influenced by the infants’ state of alertness. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Does contextual affective information influence the processing of facial expressions already at the relatively early stages of face processing? We measured event-related brain potentials to happy and sad facial expressions primed by preceding pictures with affectively positive and negative scenes. The face-sensitive N170 response amplitudes showed a clear affective priming effect: N170 amplitudes to happy faces were larger when presented after positive vs. negative primes, whereas the N170 amplitudes to sad faces were larger when presented after negative vs. positive primes. Priming effects were also observed on later brain responses. The results support an early integration in processing of contextual and facial affective information. The results also provide neurophysiological support for theories suggesting that behavioral affective priming effects are based, at least in part, on facilitation of encoding of incoming affective information. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Approach and avoidance are two basic behavioural principles. The current study investigated neuropsychological mechanisms underlying the influence of the personality characteristic goal-oriented pursuit on the efficiency of regulating such approach–avoidance reactions. Therefore, the P3 event-related potential (ERP) reflecting controlled attention allocation was assessed during the Approach–Avoidance Task (AAT) with positive and negative pictures in 36 healthy participants. For negative pictures, analyses revealed the neuropsychological mechanism of controlled attention allocation to mediate the relation between personality and behaviour: Stronger goal-oriented pursuit was associated with higher controlled attention allocation to the incompatible compared to the compatible condition and – thereby – with less automatic avoidance tendencies in response to negative pictures, i.e., with higher efficiency of regulation. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for future studies on mechanisms determining the influence of personality traits, situational factors and their interaction on approach–avoidance behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The neural correlates of processing deviations from Western music rules are relatively well known. Less is known of the neural dynamics of top-down listening modes and affective liking judgments in relation with judgments of tonal correctness. In this study, subjects determined if tonal chord sequences sounded correct or incorrect, or if they liked them or not, while their electroencephalogram (EEG) was measured. The last chord of the sequences could be congruous with the previous context, ambiguous (unusual but still enjoyable) or harmonically inappropriate. The cognitive vs. affective listening modes were differentiated in the event-related potential (ERP) responses already before the ending chord, indicating different preparation for the judgment tasks. Furthermore, three neural events tagged the decision process preceding the behavioral responses. First, an early negativity, peaking at about 280ms, was elicited by chord incorrectness and by disliking judgments only over the right hemisphere. Second, at about 500ms from the end of the sequence a positive brain response was elicited by the negative answers of both tasks. Third, at about 1200ms, a late positive potential (LPP) was elicited by the liking judgment task whereas a large negative brain response was elicited by the correctness judgment task, indexing that only at that late latency preceding the button press subjects decided how to judge the cadences. This is the first study to reveal the dissociation between neural processes occurring during affective vs. cognitive listening modes and judgments of music. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Studies report error-processing abnormalities in high-functioning individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) that may be influenced by intelligence and autism severity. Error processing can be measured using the error-related negativity (ERN) and post-error positivity (Pe) components of the event-related potential (ERP), along with behavioral indices such as post-error reaction time (RT) slowing. We used a modified Flanker task to test the hypothesis that high-functioning individuals with ASD would show decreased amplitude ERN in 24 individuals with ASD and 21 age- and IQ-matched typically-developing control participants. Behaviorally, individuals with ASD committed more errors than controls, but groups did not significantly differ on RTs, although there was a trend-level difference in post-error slowing. For ERPs, ERN amplitude was significantly attenuated in individuals with ASD relative to controls; groups did not differ in Pe amplitude. Amplitude of the ERN was not significantly correlated with measures of intelligence, anxiety, behavioral inhibition, or general autism severity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to explore the electrophysiological correlates of self-referencial processing when subjects were asked to judge whether the stimuli (their hands) were their own or not. ERP results showed that: first, own hand elicited a greater positive component (P350–500) than did other hand in the time window of 350–500ms, and the generator of P350–500 was localized in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which might be related to retrieval and identification of self-referencial information due to their sensitivity to self-hand. Second, own hand elicited a more positive component (LPC) than did other hand in the later time window. Dipole analysis revealed that the generators were localized in the parahippocampal gyrus and the medial frontal gyrus, which might be involved in making a self-referencial decision based on retrieval of self-hand information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, we addressed whether a new fast multi-feature mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm can be used for determining the central auditory discrimination accuracy for several acoustic and phonetic changes in speech sounds. We recorded the MMNs in the multi-feature paradigm to changes in syllable intensity, frequency, and vowel length, as well as for consonant and vowel change, and compared these MMNs to those obtained with the traditional oddball paradigm. In addition, we examined the reliability of the multi-feature paradigm by repeating the recordings with the same subjects 1–7 days after the first recordings. The MMNs recorded with the multi-feature paradigm were similar to those obtained with the oddball paradigm. Furthermore, only minor differences were observed in the MMN amplitudes across the two recording sessions. Thus, this new multi-feature paradigm with speech stimuli provides similar results as the oddball paradigm, and the MMNs recorded with the new paradigm were reproducible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Event-related brain electric activity (ERP) was investigated to unnoticed visual changes. The orientation of grid elements (vertical or horizontal) changed after the presentation of 10–15 identical stimuli. The grid patterns were task irrelevant, and were presented in the background of a shape discrimination task. During the first half of the session, participants were unaware of the stimulus change. However, in comparison to the ERPs to the fifth identical stimuli, stimulus change elicited posterior negativities in the 270–375ms range (visual mismatch negativity, vMMN). With participants instructed on the stimulus change, negativities emerged with earlier onset and with wider distribution. When stimulus change was preceded by only two identical stimuli, there were no such ERP effects. As the results show, a longer sequence of identical unattended stimuli may establish the memory representation of stimulus regularity, and violation of regularity is indicated by posterior negative ERP components (vMMN). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Indices of discrimination between words of different syntactic classes were examined in a group of 22 preschool-age children utilizing event-related potential (ERP) procedures. Video taped scenes depicted an actor performing actions with a set of toys. ERPs were recorded to spoken nouns or verbs that either matched or failed to match the action name or object name in the video scene. ERPs were analyzed using peak amplitude-ANOVA procedures and principal components analysis-ANOVA. Results indicated good convergence across analysis approaches. More specifically, P100 and N220 varied bilaterally over frontal electrode sites and discriminated between different syntactic classes for both match and mismatch situations. Based on comparisons with adult data from previous work [Molfese, D.L., Burger-Judisch, L., Gill, L.A., Golinkoff, R.M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., 1996. Electrophysiological correlates of noun-verb processing in adults. Brain and Language 54 388–413], it is suggested that the pattern of brain involvement underlying syntactic class discriminations undergo developmental changes between the preschool years and adulthood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Distraction triggered by unexpected events is generally described in a serial model comprising (1) automatic detection of unexpected task-irrelevant events, (2) orienting towards the event, and (3) recovery from distraction. Processes taking place at the three stages are assumed to be reflected by the N1 and mismatch negativity (MMN); the P3a; and the reorienting negativity (RON) event-related potentials (ERPs), respectively. We investigated whether the processes indexed by these components form a strongly coupled chain, each co-varying with the preceding one. To this end, micro-sequence analysis of the ERPs elicited by unpredictable pitch-changes was conducted in an auditory duration discrimination task. Results indicated that the processes indexed by the above-mentioned ERPs are not strongly coupled. Pair-wise dissociations were found between the ERPs reflecting each processing stage: P3a can be elicited without concurrent N1-increase or MMN elicitation and without subsequent elicitation of the RON. Possible interpretations of P3a and RON are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inhibition of return (IOR) is a slowed response to a stimulus at recently cued locations when stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOAs) are longer than 250ms. Using an uninformative peripheral cued Go/Nogo (commit/withdrawal response) task experiment, this study aimed to characterize the neural mechanism of IOR by studying not only the early event-related potentials (ERPs), P1 and N1, but also the late ERPs, Go/Nogo-N2 and P3. Scalp topographies and LORETA showed that the changes in P1 and N1, the cueing effects, were distributed mainly over the dorsal occipito-parietal areas, such as the bilateral middle occipital gyrus and the occipital portion of the cuneus. The changes in the late Nogo-N2 and P3 were distributed mainly over frontal–central areas, such as the right medial frontal gyrus. The Nogo-N2 was smaller and earlier in valid trials than in invalid trials, suggesting that the late component related to IOR was modulated by response preparation inhibition. The Nogo-P3 was larger and later in valid trials than in invalid trials, perhaps indicating that the control system (FEF) was free from an inhibitory marker in the cued locations. These data support a mechanism of IOR consisting of both sensory inhibition and response preparation inhibition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to determine whether ERP modulations associated with varying the probability of the stop-signal in the stop-signal task reflect variations in inhibitory processing, or whether they simply reflect general arousal associated with novel stimuli. This was achieved by examining the effects of probability on a control “ignore-signal” stimulus in addition to the stop-signal. ERP findings revealed large fronto-central N1 and P3 components that were larger in amplitude for stop-signals than ignore-signals, and when stimuli were rare (30%) compared to frequent (70%). However, probability effects were not greater for stop-signals compared to ignore-signals, discounting an interpretation exclusively in line with inhibitory processing. A principal components analysis (PCA) revealed a slow-wave ERP component that partially accounted for these probability effects. Together, the present findings indicate that ERP differences between rare and frequent stop-signals did not primarily reflect varying inhibitory requirements, but rather may be confounded by novelty effects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we measured event-related potentials (ERPs) and evoked heart rate (EHR) to investigate performance monitoring in 10–12-year-old children. The children received feedback on their performance while conducting a probabilistic learning task. Error-related ERP components time-locked to the response increased in amplitude when the children had learned the task, whereas the feedback-locked components decreased. Concerning EHR, there was a general reduction in feedback-related heart rate deceleration when the children had learned. Moreover, a prolonged heart rate deceleration was observed at negative feedback onset in comparison to positive feedback, which shifted in timing when the task progressed. Together, the ERP and EHR-measures suggest a shift from external to internal monitoring when the children are learning by performance feedback. The data suggest that error- and feedback-related EHR deceleration is a reflection of the same error monitoring system that is responsible for the emergence of the error-related negativity (ERN). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present study investigates the influence of auditory temporal grouping on automatic sound processing. We compared the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential elicited by successive deviant tones in a condition in which sounds were organized in tone pairs with respective MMN obtained in a non-paired sequence. When successive deviants belonged to different tone pairs the second deviant elicited a higher MMN amplitude than the corresponding deviant in the non-paired condition. Moreover, this temporal grouping had immediate effects on the extraction of rules as revealed by the finding that first and single deviants at the second position of a tone pair elicited larger MMNs than corresponding deviants in the non-paired condition or first and single deviants at the first position of a tone pair. Results demonstrate that auditory objects generated by temporal proximity are treated as relatively encapsulated units and that automatic deviance-detection may rely on multiple hierarchically organized representations of sound sequences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The mismatch negativity (MMN) component is an event-related potential (ERP) that can be elicited by any change in the acoustic environment, and it is related to memory-based, automatic processing mechanisms, and attentional capture processes. This component is well defined in the auditory modality. However, there is still a great controversy about its existence in the visual modality. This paper reviews the studies that are relevant with regard to memory-based, automatic deviance detection ERPs in the visual system. The paper discusses the main strengths and limitations of those studies and suggests what directions should be taken for future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Subsyndronal panic disorder shows heightened behavioral responses to threat-related facial expressions. • Subsyndronal panic disorder demonstrates a heightened early ERP response to facial expression. • In subsyndronal panic disorder event-related potentials (e.g., P100 and P200) can index attention to threat. This study aimed to examine the behavioral and neural correlates of facial emotion recognition in young women with subsyndromal panic disorder (SPD). In the experiment 15 non-medicated women with SPD and 17 matched healthy controls were tasked with recognizing angry, fearful, happy, and neutral facial expressions, and accuracy, reaction time (RT), and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. Significant between-group differences in behavioral characteristics (accuracy of emotion recognition and RT) were not found, however, the SPD subjects demonstrated a slower response to fearful expressions compared to neutral and happy expressions. More distinct between-group differences were observed for the EPRs. The SPD subjects demonstrated increased amplitudes of the P100 ERP component in the occipital area and the P200 component over the occipital and temporal regions. In the frontal regions the SPD group showed a greater amplitude of the N200 component and also an increased negativity 350−450 ms after stimulus presentation. According to the dipole source modeling data, the SPD subjects showed enhanced activation in the extra-striate cortex which increased in intensity when angry and fearful faces were presented. Thus, young women with SPD which manifested in infrequent panic attacks showed significant alterations in ERP characteristics of emotional processing, which may be considered as a more sensitive indicator of early-stage panic disorder than the observed behavioral measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study investigated the influence of incidental emotions on decision making. • Incidental emotions (anger/fear/happy) were generated from personal experiences. • Incidental fear reduced risk preference but did not influence feelings to outcome. • Incidental fear increased the feedback-related negativity for large outcomes. • Incidental fear increased the P3 between large and small outcomes. Incidental emotions, which are irrelevant to the ongoing decision, play a significant role in decision-making processes. In this study, we investigated the influence of specific incidental emotions on behavioral, psychological, and electrophysiological responses during the process of decision making. Participants finished a forced-choice gambling task, during which incidental emotions (anger/fear/happiness) were elicited by recalling emotional experiences. Behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data were recorded in the experiment. Behavioral results showed that risk preference was weaker in the fearful condition than in the angry and happy conditions, but emotional feelings to outcome feedback were not influenced by incidental emotions. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitude was larger in the fearful condition than in the angry, happy, and neutral conditions for large outcomes, whereas there was no difference between the four conditions for small outcomes. In addition, the influence of outcome magnitude (small/large) on the P3 amplitude was stronger in the fearful condition than in the angry, happy, and neutral conditions. We suggest that incidental fear elicits risk-avoidant behavior (manifested in behavioral choices), stronger motivation (manifested in the FRN amplitude) and cognitive resources (manifested in the P3 amplitude) for risky outcomes of decision making unconsciously (indicated by unchanged subjective emotional experiences). The current findings have expanded our understanding of the role of specific incidental emotions in decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]