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Conservation and mitigation translocations aim for similar positive outcomes for species under threat, however different motivations drive their implementation. Despite the clear human component behind motivation, there has been limited examination of practitioner perceptions and how they compare across the conservation and mitigation sectors, or how practitioners view budget, timelines, and outcomes. Using semi-structured interviews, we observed significantly greater investment of in-kind contributions, as well as longer planning and project duration phases in the conservation sector. The reliance of the conservation sector on in-kind contributions is fraught, because although it correlates with longer-term project investment, there are risks from fatigue of personnel. Despite general support for translocation, most practitioners perceived the goals of conservation and mitigation projects as different, and mitigation practitioners were less likely to feel that the resource expenditure was justified. Both practitioner types aligned perceptions of success, estimated via plant survival and recruitment, with IUCN Translocation Perspectives ranking criteria. Our results demonstrated that a large knowledge gap exists in understanding the motivational drivers of practitioners, which needs to be filled for improved translocation outcomes. Interviewees from both sectors identified people-related project elements, such as expectations and communication, as key areas requiring improvement for better project outcomes. Site, timelines, and maintenance were also nominated areas for improvement, but this perception was influenced by experience level. Given the rapid growth in this field, we suggest the most advantageous improvements could be made in mentoring, communication, and planning, ensuring staged success criteria aligned with both species and team goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of vascular plant taxa in Europe is threatened. National red lists are valuable biodiversity conservation tools that provide us with information on the proximity of a taxon to extinction. However, there are still differences in the methods and implementation of these assessments across European countries, indicating gaps in conservation efforts at national and regional levels. To address these disparities, we conducted a study in which we compiled data from the most recent national red lists of vascular plants in European countries, including some countries from the eastern part of the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot. Our results confirm concerns that the conservation status of European vascular flora is not fully mapped. We also found that this knowledge is not evenly distributed across European regions. There were differences in the availability of red lists, the regularity of updates, and the implementation of assessment methods. Countries that assessed their entire flora had a higher proportion of threatened taxa than countries that assessed only a portion of the flora. This highlights the risk of overlooking the conservation status of less known taxa when assessments are limited to specific taxa. Financial capacity was found to be a critical factor influencing the extent of these shortcomings. Our study has shown that countries that assess their entire flora have, on average, higher national spending on environmental protection within their overall economies. This information is critical for developing effective biodiversity conservation strategies across Europe and for addressing the threats faced by vascular plants in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Forest in South America (AF) is one of the world's most diverse and threatened biodiversity hotspots. We present a comprehensive spatiotemporal analysis of 34 years of AF landscape change between 1986 and 2020. We analyzed landscape metrics of forest vegetation only (FV), forest plus other natural vegetation (NV), and the sensitivity of metrics to linear infrastructure. Currently, the AF remnants comprise 22.9% of FV and 36.3% of NV, an extent that has decreased by 2.4% and 3.6% since 1986, respectively. Linear infrastructure affected mainly the largest fragments (>500,000 ha), reducing their size by 56%–94%. The period before 2005 was characterized by loss of FV and NV (3% and 3.43%) and decrease in the number of FV and NV fragments (8.6% and 8.1%). In contrast, after 2005 the vegetation stabilized, with a recovery of 1 Mha of FV (0.6%) and an increase in the number of fragments, due in part to environmental policies. However, the AF is still a highly fragmented domain: 97% of the vegetation fragments are small (<50 ha), with an average fragment size between 16.3 and 25.5 ha; 50–60% of the vegetation is <90 m from its edges, and the isolation between fragments is high (250–830 m). Protected areas and indigenous territories cover only 10% of the AF vegetation, and most vegetation lies are >10 km in these areas. Our work highlights the importance of legislation and analysis of landscape dynamics to help future conservation and restoration programs for biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest. • There is 23% forest and 36% natural vegetation cover in the Atlantic Forest. • Between 1986 and 2020, native forest cover decreased by 2.4% and natural vegetation by 3.6%. • Since 2005, there has been a 1 Mha increase in forest area by small fragments (1 ha). • Roads and railways subdivide the largest vegetation fragments (>500,000 ha), reducing their size by 56%–94%. • Alarmingly, 97% of fragments are small (<50 ha) and 50–60% of the vegetation is <90 m from its edges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation of threatened species is essential for achieving sustainable development goals and realizing ecological civilization in China. However, our new survey on endemic threatened angiosperms in the scientific publication database showed that there is still a serious bias in the species' selection and research topics. China's 2117 endemic threatened angiosperm species remain relatively understudied with 41 % of them being not included in any Chinese-language and English-language scientific publications. Furthermore, only 2 % of the 44,383 publications that mention threatened plant species are related to conservation research and over 75 % of them are found behind a paywall. We propose measures to increase and advance conservation research and protection for China's threatened plants, 1) improve long-term and comprehensive research on endemic threatened angiosperms in China, 2) combine conservation research and practices and transfer conservation knowledge to practices timely, 3) promote inter-governmental communication and cooperation, and 4) apply new technologies and methods to conservation studies and practices. • China's conservation and research capacity of plants is improving rapidly. • About half of the endemic threatened angiosperms (ETA) in China have not been studied. • Only 2 % of papers related to ETA pay attention to species conservation. • We need to adjust policies and mentalities to promote the conservation of Chinese plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A vital component of conservation is to sample germplasm from wild populations for safeguarding ex situ (e.g., in seed banks, though the concept also applies to animals via cryopreservation or zoos). For decades, conservationists have commonly heeded a logically sound, but perhaps suboptimal, minimum sampling guideline- to sample from 50 individuals per population. Here, I demonstrate how sampling can be improved based on two considerations that are neglected in this common, simple guideline, and have not previously been tested. First, I consider a fundamental aspect of population biology- sharing of genetic material among populations through migration. Second, I consider a fundamental aspect of ex situ collections maintenance- loss of plants through germination failure, disease, and active use (e.g., research, seed exchanges). I first simulate metapopulations with a wide range of migration rates, population sizes, numbers of populations and demographic (i.e., bottleneck) histories. Then I determine minimum sampling to preserve a sufficient number of allele copies to account for various degrees of collection attrition. My results show that sampling seed from approximately 200 to 300 individuals in total across a species' geographic range may suffice for a wide range of plant population systems, if all seeds germinate and produce plants that survive in perpetuity. However, to compensate for expected losses over time, sampling should be increased by a factor closely related to the expected loss rate, meaning that a robust minimum collection for ex situ gene conservation will often be 1000 individuals or more. More work is needed to establish final guidelines, but I do provide a summary table for practitioners. I conclude that seed collections planning must consider the plant's biology, collection maintenance, and desired characteristics of the collection such as the number of allele copies and the type of allele targeted. These results emphasize a need for thoughtful deliberation and decisions by the curator and collector, and renewed discussion of conservation targets for ex situ collections to remain viable over hundreds to thousands of years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing demand for species-based conservation to be strategic and deliver the greatest possible benefits for the money and resources invested. There is no global consensus on what constitutes an important species, but many biodiversity conservation initiatives prioritise the most rare, unique, vulnerable and/or useful as deserving attention. Currently, a wide range of prioritisation methods using varied criteria are available, but it can be difficult for conservation managers to choose the appropriate protocol best suited to their conservation purposes, and to combine the protocols that are available. The prioritisation process proposed here is integrative, adaptable, straightforward and transparent, and open to refinement by interested parties. Based on the availability of taxon level data, from an initial list of 337,137 accepted scientific names, we produced a conservation priority list for 25,025 vascular plant taxa (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) that accounts for their geographic rarity or endemism, taxonomic rarity or uniqueness, vulnerability to extinction and natural capital value by means of a multicriteria decision making approach. This list represents about 4.47% of pteridophyte, 36.12% of gymnosperm and 7.41% of angiosperm global diversity. The list consisted of a high percentage of taxa from South America (30%), Africa (23%) and North America (22%) followed by Asia-Temperate and Europe (each 15%) and Asia-Tropical (14%) with a low percentage from Australasia (6%), the Pacific (5%) and Antarctic (~2%). The occurrence of some taxa was reported from more than one geographic continent. We found 573 taxa (2%) had a high priority status, 21,707 taxa (87%) had a medium priority status and 2745 taxa (11%) had a low priority status for conservation. Results were validated against existing prioritisation schemes with a global or continental focus. The resulting list of plants with priority status along with their geographical distribution patterns should complement, not replace, existing conservation plans. Our method can be used as a rapid and preliminary assessment technique in prioritising vascular plants and has the scope to be used globally across various conservation activities. • MCDM approach can be adapted for prioritising vascular plants for conservation. • Global list of prioritised plant taxa complements existing conservation plans. • Vascular plant taxa with medium priority status are the most frequent. • Different weighting schemes have a significant impact on priority scores. • Unweighted priority scores alone are sufficient to identify the priority status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed banking is an invaluable tool in plant conservation, both as an archive and a source of genetic variation. Despite the increasing focus on the validation of sampling strategies, few studies have empirically related diversity in seed bank collections with variation in wild-provenance populations. By using a set of nuclear microsatellites, we investigated genetic diversity in British populations of Taxus baccata (European yew tree). We used our findings as a baseline for the quantification of genetic diversity captured in the germplasm collections maintained by the Millennium Seed Bank (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), in terms of allelic richness and allelic capture. We observed that genetic differentiation in wild populations of yew is compatible with highly effective gene flow, with no geographic patterns. Heterozygosity is lower than expected for a dioecious obligate outbreeder. Seed collections are representative of wild populations in terms of allelic capture, including rare and locally common variants, indicating that the current sampling protocol implemented by the UK National Tree Seed Project is appropriate. Specific sampling strategies might be improved by including more populations at the edge of the range and in remote localities, even at the expense of contiguous populations. Our methods may be applied to evaluate allelic capture in other germplasm collections for which a baseline exists, i.e. in which genetic diversity in the wild-provenance populations is known. Our recommendations related to sampling strategies can be extended to other tree species with continuous distributions and effective gene flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, scientific investigations on the effectiveness of Protected Areas (PAs) in conserving biodiversity and sustaining ecosystem functions under the impact of climate change have increasingly received more attention from researchers and park managers. In this study, we used a combination of species distribution modelling (SDM) and spatial hierarchical systematic conservation planning technique to delineate and prioritize areas for endemic plant species conservation under current and future (2050s, 2070s) climate conditions in Sikkim Himalaya. Data on endemic plant species occurrence were sourced from our already published studies and their potential suitable habitats under current and future climates were modelled using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) SDM. The MaxEnt habitat suitability projections of species were used in Zonation software to identify priority conservation areas in Sikkim Himalaya. We found that the existing PA network in the region was inadequate in conserving the endemic plant diversity either in the current or future climate scenarios. Based on our results, we propose addition of 896 square kilometres (sq km) to the existing PA network in the study area to ensure meaningful conservation goals. Additionally, we propose creation of 3 new PAs (Yumsedong, Lachen and Chungthang) and the need for expanding the boundaries of existing PAs (Maenam, Fambong Lho and Barsey) in the study area. Our analyses show that to mitigate the effects of ensuing climate change, a single large PA with wide geographic and elevational extents instead of several smaller PAs would be a more prudent strategy for conserving the plant diversity in the Himalaya. • Areas were prioritized for endemic plant species conservation in Sikkim Himalaya. • Additional geographical area of 896 sq. km should be included in Protected Area. • 3 new Protected Areas should be designed in Sikkim (Yumsedong, Lachen Chungthang). • 3 existing Protected Areas should be expanded (Maenam, Fambong Lho, Barsey). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Wild-harvested plants face increasing demand globally. As in many fisheries, monitoring the effect of harvesting on the size and trajectory of resource stocks presents many challenges given often limited data from disparate sources. Here we analyze American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) harvests from 18 states in the eastern U.S. 1978–2014 to infer temporal patterns and evidence of population declines, and we test the effects of local environmental and socioeconomic factors on ginseng harvesting at the county level 2000–2014. Despite rising prices, annual wild ginseng harvests decreased from a high point in the late 1980s to early 1990s, then, in most, increased after 2005 or 2010 - suggesting range-wide overexploitation notwithstanding federal regulations that, since 1999, restrict minimum harvest age. County-level harvest rates increased with available habitat, road density, poverty and unemployment, but decreased when public land formed a large proportion of county area. Harvests were largest in the Southern Appalachian region. Poverty and accessibility were strongly related to high levels of harvesting. A key implication is that to conserve valuable wild native plant products while also improving local livelihoods, wild cultivation and good stewardship practices must be strongly promoted. Our approach to assessing the condition of wild populations offers a broad template that could be adapted to other wild-harvested plants. Highlights • Annual harvests of wild American ginseng have decreased since 1985 suggesting overexploitation. • Harvest rates increased with available habitat, road density, poverty and unemployment. • Harvest decreased in areas with a high proportion of public land. • Conserving valuable wild native plant products could improve local livelihoods. • Wild cultivation and good stewardship practices must be strongly promoted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Plants are essential resources for the earth and human survival. Many plant species are threatened by human disturbance and are now in danger of extinction. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) seeks to halt the continuing loss of plant diversity and species across the globe. China endorsed the GSPC in 2002, and launched a national plant conservation strategy related to the GSPC in 2008. This paper assesses the progress of GSPC implementation in China. The results show that Targets 1, 2, 4, 5, and 7 of the GSPC were achieved in China before 2018, and substantial progress has been made toward meeting Targets 3, 8, 9, 14, and 16 by 2020. Limited progress has been made so far in reaching Targets 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 15. Although GSPC implementation has promoted the conservation and restoration of plant diversity in China, China needs to scale up and accelerate its actions related to conserving and/or restoring on both ecological region and vegetation type dimensions in the long run, including integrated in and ex situ native species recovery programs. Highlights • China has made varying degrees of progress towards all targets of GSPC. • Targets 1, 2, 4, 5, and 7 of GSPC have been achieved in China before 2018. • China is now on track to meet Targets 3, 8, 9, 14, and 16 of GSPC by 2020. • Limited progress has been made in China to meet Targets 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 15 of GSPC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract While much has been published on recent rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands, deforestation rates and patterns on Java's endemic-rich mountains have been rather neglected. We used nearly 1000 Landsat images to examine spatio-altitudinal and temporal patterns of forest loss in montane West Java over the last 28 years, and the effectiveness of protected areas in halting deforestation over that period. Around 40% of forest has been lost since 1988, the bulk occurring pre-2000 (2.5% per annum), falling to 1% per annum post-2007. Most deforestation has occurred at lower altitudes (<1000 m above sea level), both as attrition of the edges of forested mountain blocks as well as the near-total clearance of lower-altitude forested areas. Deforestation within protected areas was rife pre-2000, but greatly decreased thereafter, almost ceasing post-2007 in protected areas of high International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status. While this trend is welcome, it must be stressed that the area of remaining forest is only 5234 km2, that most accessible lower-altitude forest has already disappeared, and that the extant montane forest is largely fragmented and isolated. The biological value of these forests is huge and without strong intervention we anticipate imminent loss of populations of taxa such as the Javan Slow Loris Nycticebus javanicus and Javan Green Magpie Cissa thalassina. Highlights • West Javan mountain forests have endemic biodiversity but a long history of deforestation. • Following 1990, roughly 40% of forest has been lost; however, the rate of deforestation has since decreased. • Forest loss was most prevalent at lower altitudes, which were almost completely cleared. • Forests at higher altitudes and within protected areas fared better. • Remaining forest is limited to higher altitudes and is vulnerable to fragmentation and clearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Different dimensions of biodiversity other than species richness, such as phylogenetic and functional diversity, are increasingly appreciated as critical in conservation planning. Although China harbors a very rich plant biodiversity, a significant fraction of this diversity is endangered. Based on a distribution database of 320 rare and endangered plant species (REPs 1 1 REPs, rare and endangered plant species), we measured taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity of REPs in China using three indices with a biologically comprehensive method. Priorities and conservation gaps across multiple biodiversity dimensions were identified. We show that priority areas for China's REPs exhibit low overlap across the three dimensions. Most of the priority areas across all three dimensions locate in southwestern China. We also identified some scattered priority areas in northeastern, northwestern and central China with phylogenetic and functional diversity. Existing nature reserves poorly represent the three dimensions of REPs biodiversity in China. We suggest that integrative approaches connecting biogeography, evolutionary and functional ecology could improve the protection efficiency of traditional conservation strategies. Our work highlights the need to explicitly link desired conservation objectives and biodiversity metrics, and provide a quantitative framework to advance future conservation planning aimed at protecting multi-facetted biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long term survival of plant populations relies on successful reproductive cycle to obtain generation turnover. Focusing on plant species of conservation concern, we brought together a group of plant conservationists from different countries to assess whether the already available information on plant reproductive biology and autecology is adequate for identifying which phases of single species life cycle might act as bottleneck. We compiled a list of 80 plant species of conservation concern living on European cliffs and rocky slopes, for which biological and autecological information was collected from scientific literature, technical reports, and expert knowledge. Results have shown that the available information on species reproductive biology and autecology is inadequate to identify bottlenecks in the life cycle of many species and to provide insights for the practical conservation of many more. Available knowledge is mainly referred to the flowering phase, less on seed production and much less on seedling establishment and on cloning. Meanwhile and noteworthy, flowering resulted to be the less critical phase for the fulfilment of the species life cycle. Overall, with this perspective article we aim to encourage a constructive debate among the scientific community members and policymakers to set up novel concerted strategies for the conservation of plant species of conservation concern. The challenge of the discussion is the implementation of the current approach with new biological and ecological information to be exclusively targeted at identifying the constraints that limit the generation turnover and furnishing specific indications for active management. • Most of the knowledge on plant life cycle does not focus on the critical phases. • Goals of biological studies are often independent from conservation purposes. • Available knowledge is insufficient to guide plant conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rare and vulnerable narrow endemic species represent distinct evolutionary units emerging from various temporal processes, and the preservation of such species is a key issue in biological conservation. Phylogeography has proven to be a relevant tool for distinguishing evolutionary units within species resulting from contrasted biogeographical events, and it can be leveraged to obtain historical and evolutionary perspectives. Yet, despite its usefulness, it is curiously underutilized in plant conservation genetics. Here we provide a comprehensive review of the available case studies on the structure of genetic diversity in the Mediterranean narrow endemic plants (MNEs) of the Mediterranean Basin hotspot. The use of genetic diversity structure for phylogeographical inference and for defining conservation units was examined in eighty-four studies dealing with eighty-three distinct taxa, most of which are perennial herbs occupying a narrow ecological niche. In addition, some 91.5% of the analyzed MNEs are located in the north-western part of the Mediterranean region, and this results in a geographical coverage that is heavily biased. Half of the studied species have moderate to high genetic diversity, and genetic differentiation is geographically structured in 56% of the case studies, indicating that MNEs are not “evolutionary dead-ends,” but rather represent species that have a strong evolutionary legacy. Taken at face value, this would imply conservation planning at the population level. However, it was only a minority of the studies that used these genetic structures to define conservation units. The main insight of the present review is that phylogeography is generally overlooked in conservation genetics. In fact, the design of conservation units has not often been the main goal of these studies, which more commonly is simply to enhance the scope of genetic diversity analyses of rare plants. Nevertheless, the strong phylogeographic structure revealed by several studies of MNEs underlines the relevance of phylogeography. We argue that comparative phylogeography across several co-occurring taxa could greatly improve the proactive conservation planning for threatened endemic plants within biodiversity hotspots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A central challenge for threatened species conservation in agricultural landscapes is to understand the relative contributions of old growth, regrowth, and planted woodland to species persistence. We offer a new perspective into solving this problem by using a systematic conservation planning approach to integrate spatial biodiversity and economic information with patch complementarity. We applied this to an eight-year study of woodland birds vulnerable to extinction across an extensive agricultural region of Australia. We used regression and ordination analyses to show that species were more likely to occur in regrowth and old growth woodland patches compared with plantings. We then set objectives of finding sets of complementary patches for supporting species across the landscape, and explored biodiversity trade-offs resulting from production- or cost-focused objectives. We found that species persistence could be achieved only through sets of patches containing all patch types (old growth, regrowth, plantings). Scenarios that selected sets of patches irrespective of patch type maximized species occurrence over time for the lowest combined area and establishment costs. Patch sets had a higher proportion of plantings for the objective of minimizing area, but a more equal proportion of patch types for the objective of minimizing cost. Our findings demonstrate what the relative composition of old growth, regrowth, and plantings should be when considering vegetation management interventions for threatened species conservation. Government policy and associated funding aimed at improving biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes needs to promote both regrowth woodland and revegetation planting strategies in addition to old growth woodland protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To prioritize conservation efforts, it is important to know which plant species are most vulnerable to extinction. Intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities depend on demographic parameters, but for many species these demographic parameters are lacking. Body size has been successfully used as proxy of such parameters to estimate extinction vulnerability of birds and mammals. For plants, not all necessary demographic parameters have been related to size yet. Here, we derived allometric relationships with maximum plant height for the intrinsic population growth rate and the carrying capacity. Furthermore, for the first time, we derived a relationship between the variance in population growth rate due to environmental stochasticity and plant height. These relationships were used to relate extinction vulnerability to maximum plant height. Extinction vulnerability was found to be most sensitive to fluctuations in the population growth rate due to environmental stochasticity. Large plant species were less susceptible to environmental stochasticity, resulting in a lower vulnerability to extinction than small plant species. This negative relationship between plant size and extinction vulnerabilities is in contrast to previous results for mammals and birds. These results increase our theoretical understanding of the relationship between plant functional traits and extinction vulnerabilities and may aid in assessments of data deficient species. The uncertainty in the allometric relationships is, however, too large to quantify true extinction vulnerabilities. Further investigation in the relationship between demographic parameters and plant traits other than height is needed to further enhance our understanding of plant species extinction vulnerabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the primary drivers of species diversity patterns and identifying critical places for biodiversity protection are the two major concerns confronting the global conservation community. The Orchidaceae, which is one of the most diverse angiosperm families with over 30,000 species, is currently facing grave threats from habitat degradation, climate change, and a range of human-induced issues. However, the spatial patterns of orchid distribution and the factors influencing these patterns, both of which are crucial for developing successful orchid conservation plans, remain poorly understood. Here, using one of the most extensive distribution datasets of >500 orchid species in Nepal, we mapped the distribution of all, common, rare, epiphyte, and terrestrial species and identified important factors driving their patterns. We also assessed their protection gaps and identified key conservation regions. We discovered low spatial congruence between the diversity patterns of different groups, and the fundamental drivers underlying the richness pattern differed considerably. The key orchid conservation areas were primarily found in the mid-hills and highlands of central Nepal, with 62 % of these areas outside the protected area (PA) network. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering pollinator diversity and other climate factors when developing effective management plans to conserve orchids, as well as employing different strategies to conserve different life forms. A huge conservation gap in protecting orchids despite large PA coverage in Nepal indicates insufficiency of existing PA network in conserving plants. Therefore, our findings reiterates the need to consider plant conservation goals alongside animal conservation priorities in future conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Living plant collections increasingly contribute to ex situ conservation through the establishment of metacollections: coordinated networks of living collections that, by pooling resources, aim to represent and maintain intraspecific variation of species of conservation concern. Metacollections may be particularly important for the conservation of species that cannot be seed banked (i.e., exceptional species) and require substantial space or care in ex situ collections of whole growing plants. Here we asked: what is the minimum number of initial plants needed to achieve a conservation goal while accounting for attrition due to plant death in a metacollection? We defined conservation goals as the number of plants, sourced from different regions, that should survive after a given time period to represent intraspecific variation ex situ. The emphasis on minimizing the number of initial plants needed to achieve these goals follows from resource limitations common in ex situ collections. The approach to this question in the current literature does not account for the reliability with which conservation goals are achieved. To address this issue we developed stochastic optimization models that estimate the minimum number of initial plants required to achieve a conservation goal with a stated level of reliability. We illustrated the application of these models with hypothetical as well as real-life examples and uncovered management implications of intraspecific variation in attrition rates, including a trade-off between metacollection size (number of initial plants) and resilience to unpredictable events that might affect part of a metacollection. • Optimization models help design metacollections for ex situ plant conservation. • Models include conservation goals about representation of intraspecific variation. • Models incorporate the reliability with which conservation goals are achieved. • Models account for variation in attrition due to provenance and living collection. • Models uncovered a trade-off between metacollection size and resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop-related wild plant species are a rich source of genetic diversity and are potentially useful in plant breeding for the development of varieties with novel traits. However, many crop wild relatives are poorly represented in gene banks, while their continued survival in situ is by no means ensured. Here we introduced a methodology to inventory relevant taxa and to assess their threat levels for continued survival in situ , including the expected effects of climate change, and applied it to crop wild relatives in The Netherlands. A total number of 214 taxa of wild relatives of economically important agricultural and horticultural crops were identified, of which 53 are included in the Dutch red list of plant species. The group of 53 red list species was studied in more detail to prioritize species for conservation. Based on recent distribution data, the number of Dutch populations consisting of at least 50 individuals varied strongly among the red list species. The majority of these ‘large’ populations were found to be located in protected areas. Furthermore, niche modelling was used to study the expected effects of climate change on the future distribution of the red list species. These analyses predicted a reduced distribution area for the majority of species, although also positive effects of climate change were observed for several species. Similar patterns of change were observed when only protected areas were considered. Results of the study were used to prioritize the conservation of crop wild relatives in The Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a GIS spatial analysis with the aim of providing the first quantitative large-scale overview of the distribution patterns of 1536 type localities ( loci classici ) of 1216 Italian endemic vascular plants and their relationship with a set of descriptive variables. Whereas some variables were used to model the presence-absence distribution patterns of the type localities for the whole set of endemics as well as for the subset of narrow endemics, others (e.g., presence inside or outside protected areas and Italian Important Plant Areas) were considered with the purpose of assessing potential assets or risks for conservation. The largest number of type localities was found within the Mediterranean biogeographic region (1134), followed by the Alpine region (306) and Continental region (96). A total of 670 locations are located on islands, whereas 866 are located on the Italian mainland (139 and 124 in the case of narrow endemics, respectively). A large number of type localities are located in mountainous areas and along the coastline, which can be seen as a potential risk for conservation. On the contrary, we detected a positive correlation with the distance from roads, which might be considered to be an asset. Importantly, 1030 type localities fall inside protected areas, whereas 506 localities fall outside protected areas, with 259 of these unprotected localities on islands. We propose considering the results of the analysis of the distribution of type localities of Italian endemics to be a strategic tool for conservation planning and resource management. Application of plant micro-reserves and integration of diverse legislation tools are suggested to strengthen efforts and increase conservation success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reintroducing endangered plant species is an important conservation strategy. However, only a few studies evaluate their long-term reintroduction success. Because such information is vital for understanding the success and failure of species reintroductions, we conducted a seven-year reintroduction experiment with Jurinea cyanoides , an endangered xeric sandy grassland species. We tested Jurinea seed sowing combined with three treatments (mowing, top soil inversion, and top soil inversion with sod cuttings) on two sites with different nutrient status, applying a Latin-Square design. We compared germination, seedling survival and reproduction success between treatments and sites using GLMs and resampling methods. Reintroduction success in different population stages varied across treatments, sites and over time, revealing the most successful treatment only after some years. Jurinea germinated in all plots, but almost no plants survived in control and mown plots. A first generation established successfully in both inversion treatments, but with fewer plants on the nutrient-poorer site. However, subsequent generative and vegetative reproduction was higher in this site than on the nutrient-richer site. Between the two inversion treatments, that with only top soil inversion was more successful, since species introduced by sod cuttings hampered the population growth of Jurinea . We conclude that a radical elimination of competing species and removal of top soil is mandatory for a successful reintroduction of this rare species. The fact that site conditions that were most suitable for the first generation did not continue to facilitate population growth in the following years underlines the importance of long-term monitoring of reintroduction experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been much debate about the effectiveness of different sized reserves for nature conservation. However, in human-dominated landscapes such as cities, conservation reserve systems are, by necessity, often determined without using conservation planning principles. This can result in reserve systems that are small, fragmented and disconnected. In this study, we conducted a floristic survey of 68 urban grassland conservation reserves to assess how reserves of different areas contribute to species conservation. Species accumulation curves, species-area relationships, and proportion of native cover were explored. We found that 87% of all native plant species were found in small reserves < 10 ha in size, more small reserves contained a greater number of species than few large reserves of a comparable area, and cover of native species in small reserves was no different than cover in large reserves. However, large reserves harboured more uncommon species than smaller reserves. This research has several important implications for conservation planning and design, highlighting that both small and large reserves can help to conserve native plant species in urban areas. However, a preference for large reserves over small ones is embedded in much conservation planning and management. There is a danger that a normative belief that large reserves are ‘good’ and small reserves are ‘bad’ has become entrenched in conservation thinking. While the theory and evidence showing the conservation benefits of large reserves over small reserves for some organisms is clear, in some cases, small reserves can make a substantial and genuine contribution to conservation outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With over 35,000 higher plants recorded, China is among the countries with the highest plant diversity. However, due to increasing human population, land-use intensification, and economic development, the habitat of most species is under considerable threat. Here we develop conservation priority maps covering all of China based on plant species distribution models in combination with spatially explicit decision making tools for systematic conservation planning. Our aim was to find spatial scenarios that maximize the success of conservation goals while minimizing the required land area to achieve these goals, so that economic development can proceed with minimal damage to existing biodiversity resources. We built species distribution models for 7427 vascular plant species at a 10 × 10′ resolution covering whole China, using geo-referenced herbarium collections and detailed environmental data, corrected for spatial bias using a null model. Based on these models we mapped: (1) species richness centers for common species (3535), endemic species (1965) and Chinese red list species (1927); (2) priority areas for conservation, distinguishing between conservation targets for common species (15% of the predicted suitable habitat), endemic species (25% the predicted suitable habitat) and red list species (35% the predicted suitable habitat); and (3) downscaled land-use pattern in each priority area for conservation. Clear priorities for the development of a sustainable and feasible biodiversity conservation strategy can now be provided based on our maps at national and regional levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medicinal plants are more vulnerable to threats than non-medicinal plants. In China, a large number of medicinal plants are threatened by human activities and climate change, which greatly affect the conservation of species diversity, genetic resources and sustainable development of the traditional Chinese medicine industry. In this study, we established the first database for the distributions of 535 threatened medicinal plant species in China at the county level. Using this database, we explored geographic patterns, identified biodiversity hotspots and determined the conservation gaps for these threatened medicinal plants. Threatened medicinal plants were widely distributed in 1709 counties across the whole country. The species richness was higher in southern than in northern China. Using the “top 5% richness algorithm” and the “complementary algorithm”, we identified 213 counties as biodiversity hotspots for threatened medicinal plants in China. However, based on further conservation gap analysis, we found that 30 hotspot counties were not covered by any type of nature reserve (complete conservation gaps), and 27 more hotspot counties were not covered by national or provincial nature reserves in mainland China. We suggest that new nature reserves should be established for the 30 complete conservation gaps, while range, level or management strategies for the current nature reserves should be improved for the remaining 27 conservation gaps to promote the conservation of threatened medicinal plants in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extension of land use has been the main way to increase agricultural production to date. Natural habitats have consequently decreased and became increasingly fragmented, putting high pressure on the wild relatives of main crops. In this study, we assessed the diversity of wild relatives and cultivated varieties of yam, Dioscorea rotundata , a tuber crop grown in West Africa. Using nuclear markers, we showed that 19% of the wild plants were in fact hybrids between wild and cultivated varieties. Using whole chloroplast sequences, our results suggest that hybridization may be even stronger, with 43% of the wild individuals presenting either chloroplast or nuclear introgression with the cultivated yams. Adaptation of agriculture to current new pathogen outbreaks and ongoing climatic changes will require mining the vast diversity found in crops wild relatives. However, our study suggests that wild yam diversity is already largely tainted by crop-to-wild gene flow. The need to focus on in-situ wild yam conservation is even more crucial, since today, ex-situ genebanks contain nearly no wild yam accessions. Data profile Microsatellite allele scoring is available as an online appendix; NGS data (.bam file) are available as SRA bioproject PRJNA383673. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main Korean mountain range [the so-called “Baekdudaegan” (BDDG)] is thought to have served as a glacial refugium, mainly for the boreal and temperate flora of northeastern Asia. To test this hypothesis, we have critically reviewed ( i ) the genetic literature focused on plants for which Korean populations have been studied or Korean endemic plants, and ( ii ) palaeoecological studies with data from the Korean Peninsula and/or from neighboring regions. Consistent with this hypothesis, Korean populations showed higher intrapopulation genetic diversity (and, in some cases, with latitudinal decreases of genetic variation), harbored ancestral haplotypes, and/or exhibited significant amounts of unique haplotypes/alleles. Palaeoecological data support the genetic studies, indicating that the BDDG sustained an assemblage of boreal and temperate forests at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Given its floristic, biogeographic, and cultural value (it is regarded as a “holy mountain system” in Korea), the BDDG merits high priority for conservation. In order to guarantee the preservation of the BDDG, we suggest enlarging the current BDDG Mountains Reserve in South Korea, whereas in North Korea the accelerated deforestation should be stopped and new protected areas should be set up. Cooperation between the two Koreas is also needed, and may constitute an important step towards more ambitious initiatives such as the creation of the “Ecological Corridor of Northeast Asia”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to intensified human pressure and climate change, ex situ conservation measures have become essential for conserving Earth's remaining biodiversity, but the development of targeted ex situ conservation strategies based on conservation gaps analysis is often a major challenge. Here, we used a dated phylogeny including 95.70 % of the Chinese vascular genera and 1,540,695 species distribution records to identify ex situ conservation gaps in the tree of life and geographic space in China. We found that at least 41.70 % (12,716 species) of all vascular plant species (30,494 species), including 49.31 % (1715 species) of Chinese endangered species, are conserved in the botanic gardens. The results show that most species in ex situ collections are from eastern China and have been housed in botanic gardens in this region, whereas several plant diversity hotpots in the southwestern and northwestern regions are not well represented in ex situ conservation; only 12.67 % of the collection capacity of the Chinese botanic gardens is allocated to endangered species; there are 18 phylogenetic clusters of genera absent from the ex situ collections and the missing species are mostly from alpine or desert, mainly distributed in the Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains and northern Xinjiang. Therefore, we suggest that more collection capacity of China be devoted to endangered species particularly in the southwestern and northwestern regions. Our study provides quantified resources of targeted inventory and area for future ex situ conservation in China, and a fundamental protocol to invest the future achievement of local or global ex situ conservation. • Ex situ conservation measures have become essential for conserving Earth's remaining biodiversity. • The development of targeted ex situ conservation strategies is often a major challenge. • We present a fundamental protocol to invest the future achievement of ex situ conservation. • Provides quantified resources of targeted inventory and area for future ex situ conservation in China. • Our method can be applied to reveal local or global ex situ conservation bias comprehensively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A chief tool in plant conservation is the augmenting or establishment of threatened plant populations by translocating individuals grown ex-situ. As translocations become an increasingly common practise in conservation and land management, various techniques to increase survival and persistence have become established as standard. Here we use a large historical database of plant translocations to evaluate the evidence for common management techniques to enhance translocation performance. We found that the most important factors associated with maximising size and survival of translocated plant populations were the number of propagules planted, fencing to protect from herbivores, and stimulating recruitment. Factors influencing the probability of recruitment were less certain, however burning and watering increased its likelihood. We also asked how habitat and lifeform influenced translocation performance. Translocations in grassland habitats performed worse than other habitats, and translocations of their predominant lifeform, the perennial grasses, also compared poorly. Our results make a strong case for the utility of a limited number of management interventions, and we highlight where a more explicit focus on experimental data might build our understanding of the factors influencing success in plant translocations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Billions of seeds from wild species are currently stored in hundreds of conservation seed banks around the world. Plant translocation from these seeds is a key conservation priority and one of the targets of the UN's Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. How these seeds are used for plant translocation and what obstacles seed banks encounter has not been investigated. To explore this issue, we circulated a questionnaire across international networks, complemented with a literature review on plant translocation from stored seeds. We received responses from 104 seed banks in 34 countries. Just over 70 % had previously used their collections for plant translocation, with a median of 12 translocations per seed bank. The main limitations for translocation were identified as "funding" and "resources", with a lack of seeds and expertise also mentioned as obstacles. Only 11 seed banks had no constraints on their ability to carry out plant translocation. With 96 % of respondents indicating they would like to carry out future plant translocations, there is a willingness by seed banks to use their collections more extensively, but a lack of funding and resource availability is limiting the full potential for translocation activities. The literature review identified 12 articles which specified that seed bank stored seeds were used for plant translocation, suggesting that plant translocations from ex situ seeds are rarely published in the scientific literature. Our results indicate that if nations are to achieve their international conservation targets, funding and resources for the use of banked seeds should be prioritised. [Display omitted] • Most seed banks use their collections for plant translocation but face challenges. • Funding and resources are identified by seed banks as the main limitations. • Plant translocation from ex situ stored seed is rarely published in the literature. • Increased funding is required for seed banks to achieve conservation targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imperiled plant species can benefit from ex situ cultivation to safeguard against loss of genetic diversity and possible extinction in the wild. Few studies use genetic monitoring in endangered plant species to evaluate how well current management practices maintain genetic diversity and limit inbreeding and relatedness after plants are brought into cultivation. We examine this question using Attalea crassispatha , a palm species with fewer than 100 palms surviving worldwide, and only 25 remaining in their native habitat. We sampled all accessible palms of this species (both in situ and ex situ) to (1) investigate how well garden collections capture in situ genetic diversity, (2) evaluate how well genetic diversity is carried forward into subsequent generations ex situ, (3) determine the number of wild and founding individuals contributing to ex situ breeding efforts, and (4) identify optimal breeding pairs that would maximize diversity and limit inbreeding. We found higher genetic diversity in situ and that current propagation practices lead to self-fertilization in the ex situ population and therefore fail to adequately steward genetic diversity in the conservation collection. Using relatedness analyses, we identified optimal breeding pairs in collections at different locations, highlighting the need for coordinated breeding efforts to maximize diversity ex situ. We also identified putative A. crassispatha that are genetically unrelated to the rest of the study cohort and are likely mislabeled. This study highlights the utility of genetic monitoring and the importance of careful coordination and record keeping within and among collections to ensure genetic diversity is maintained for future conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural sustainability standards are an important way of reducing commodity expansion's pressures on biodiversity. Despite the increase of global area under certification and mounting evidence of positive socioeconomic outcomes, certification-derived conservation benefits are less clear. We applied a robust counterfactual approach with a difference-in-difference methodology to quantify the environmental consequences of certification in one of the largest coffee-producing areas in the world, in southern Brazil, within the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes. We evaluated whether the adoption of certification standards affected native vegetation regeneration and deforestation, the proportion of vegetation deficit within each farm (the required area to achieve Federal Legislation required vegetation cover), and the conservation of sensitive vegetation protected under law across 531 certified farms. We did not detect certification-derived effects on the natural vegetation cover deficit and on deforestation and regeneration rates, which were low for certified and non-certified farms. However, we found that certified farms are restoring more sensitive areas than non-certified farms in the Atlantic Forest, which indicates a potential combined effect between law enforcement and certification. We suggest that in more consolidated landscapes, certification beneficial impacts on deforestation and regeneration might be more limited than observed in areas with weaker governance, such as agricultural frontiers or low-income countries. However, our results demonstrate the potential for certification schemes to complement and promote environmental legislation compliance. These potential combined effects between private sustainability standards and compliance with government environmental policies could provide a potent tool for improving the effectiveness of certification schemes in other high-biodiversity landscapes. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characterizing the distribution of threats facing species is a crucial, first step toward designing effective conservation strategy. The last comprehensive analysis of threats facing rare plants in the United States was conducted nearly 20 years ago. Here we systematically analyze the threats facing 2733 rare and vulnerable plants in the US using textual analysis of the most comprehensive database available. In the continental US plants are most commonly threatened by outdoor recreation (affecting 35% of species), especially from off-road vehicles (19%) and hiking and related activities (13%). The next-most common threats are from livestock (33%), residential development (28%), non-native invasives (27%), and roads (21%). In Hawaii invasives threaten 95% of species followed by increases in fire intensity/frequency (26%) then livestock (19%). Multivariate analyses indicate threats do not form distinct “syndromes” (clusters of threats) but rather a single “mega-syndrome” with high degrees of overlap between most threats. We also compared the prevalence of threats to the distribution of research effort. Nearly 75% of threats are understudied relative to their prevalence, including five of the six most common threats while a few rare threats (missing species like pollinators; pathogens; logging; climate-induced ecosystem movement; and crop-based agriculture) receive most of the attention. In comparison to a benchmark assessment from 1998 (Wilcove et al. BioScience 48:607-615) we find little difference in threat prevalence, though temporal trends suggest increasing frequency of nearly all threats. Overall rare plants in the US are affected by a dense network of threats across which research attention is disproportionately directed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation biologists have drawn up a range of guidelines for the conservation of genetic diversity—to maximise the chances that populations of threatened species persist, and to conserve this variation for its potential utility. However, our understanding of the effectiveness of conservation guidelines for maintaining genetic diversity in situ is limited. Furthermore, we lack information on how species-level variation in mating system affects these genetic conservation strategies. We used the British geographical ranges of eight widespread but declining plant species, varying in breeding system, as a model to assess the effectiveness of guidelines for the in-situ conservation of neutral genetic diversity. By applying simulated in-situ conservation scenarios to amplified fragment length polymorphism data, we show that the conservation of one population (the “minimum-set” approach) would retain ~ 70% of common allelic variation, but few or no rare alleles (alleles with frequency ≤ 0.05). Our results indicate that the conservation of > 35% of populations would be needed to reach the Convention on Biological Diversity's recommendation to conserve 70% of genetic diversity in situ , as applied to rare alleles (~ 10 populations within each species' British range). The capture of genetic variation in simulated conservation networks was insensitive to breeding system. However, a spatially stratified approach to population selection led to significantly greater capture rates for common alleles in two of our study species, relative to a spatially random strategy. Our study highlights the challenges of conserving genetic variation, and emphasises the vulnerability of genetic biodiversity to reductions in the extent of species' ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many rare plant and animal species require frequent habitat disturbance to ensure population persistence, but humans often suppress or modify natural disturbance regimes, such as floods and fires, which harms disturbance-adapted species. To manage these populations, demographic models are often used to quantify the optimal disturbance frequency of the habitat. Increasing drought frequency due to climate change could alter optimal management strategies by decreasing the benefit of a recently disturbed habitat. We ask whether disturbance and drought interactively affect population dynamics and optimal management of Astragalus bibullatus , a Federally endangered legume endemic to limestone cedar glades in Tennessee. We used matrix population models to determine the independent and interactive effects of drought and management of woody canopy cover on A. bibullatus' probability of extinction, time to extinction and future population size. Under current drought frequencies, A. bibullatus' probability of extinction was minimized with the most frequent management, since open habitats promote recruitment. However, as drought frequency increases, the probability of extinction was minimized with less frequent management, since canopy cover decreased mortality of older plants during droughts. We recommend managing disturbance-dependent habitats by maintaining two types of environments; those that promote high survivorship during climatically unfavorable years, and those that promote increased reproduction and recruitment during climatically favorable years. Varying management goals across the landscape will decrease species-wide risk by preventing a single drought from harming all populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasions of non-native plants often result in impoverished local communities; however, their cascading effects along food chain remain unknown. Here we investigated how the alteration of food resources and habitat structure due to the invasion of an alien tree affects the species richness of habitat specialist and generalist birds. During 2014, we sampled forest stands of the invasive Robinia pseudacacia and control stands of native trees in the Czech Republic (central Europe). Specifically, we performed intensive breeding bird counts and assessed moth diversity as a key food resource for breeding birds and, described the habitat structure of sampled stands. Compared to native tree stands, stands of R. pseudacacia had a lower species richness of habitat specialist birds, a higher species richness of habitat generalist birds, a lower diversity of moths, a less continuous canopy and a more developed shrub layer. Then we related bird species richness to moth diversity and descriptors of habitat structure. Moth diversity was the only variable significantly related to the species richness of habitat specialist birds, while the species richness of habitat generalist birds was related solely to the local habitat structure. Specialists were thus limited by a less diverse food supply in the invaded stands, most likely due to the absence of some arthropod species. In contrast, generalists were ecologically more flexible and exploited new breeding opportunities created by a shrub layer in the invaded stands. Our study thus provides evidence that impacts of an invasive tree scale up across trophic levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Threatened organisms may act as host to a suite of dependent organisms, which are potentially cothreatened, yet management is rarely coordinated between host and dependent species. Here, we test the congruency of patterns of genetic structure between two critically endangered interacting taxa; the feather-leaf banksia ( Banksia brownii R.Br.), and its host-specific herbivorous plant-louse Trioza barrettae Taylor & Moir, to establish whether conservation actions should be implemented jointly for both species. We also examine the role of host population size and fire history on the density of psyllids on host plants. We show that the patterns of mtDNA variation in T. barrettae and microsatellite variation in both species support the presence of at least two conservation units across each species, with the microsatellites also showing a high evolutionary congruency between plant and insect populations. The extinction of divergent B. brownii populations, therefore, is likely to have resulted in the extinction of divergent plant-louse populations. Larger populations of host plant (> 150) and more recent fire history (< 20 years since fire) are important factors in maintaining T. barrettae densities. High molecular congruency indicates the importance of considering patterns of genetic diversity of source material from both host and dependent organisms for ex situ conservation, in situ supplementations and reintroductions. As dependents such as T. barrettae are often lost to extinction before their host, considering the conservation of dependent biota in the early stages of species management is paramount. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flora in China is highly endemic. Decisions about conservation and management of biodiversity based on hotspots and conservation gaps of endemic seed plant species diversity in China are essential. In this paper, based on a species distribution data set with 12,824 Chinese endemic plants, we measured Chinese endemic seed plant diversity using five indices: endemic species richness (ER), weighted endemism (WE), phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE), and biogeographically weighted evolutionary distinctiveness (BED). Five percent of China's total land area with the highest biodiversity was used to identify hotspots for each index. In total, 19 hotspots covering 7.96% of China's total land area were identified. Most hotspots are located in mountainous areas, mainly in the Qinling Mountains and further south or in the Hengduan Mountains and to the east in China. Nine hotspots are identified with all five indices. These hotspots include the Hengduan Mountains, the Xishuangbanna Region, the Qinling Mountains, southwest Chongqing, and five mountainous areas (located in east Chongqing and west Hubei; in east Yunnan and west Guangxi; in north Guangxi, southeast Guizhou and southwest Hunan; in north Guangdong and south Hunan; and in southeast Tibet, respectively). Furthermore, we detected conservation gaps for hotspots of Chinese endemic seed flora by overlaying national nature reserves with the identified hotspots, and we designated priority conservation gaps for hotspots by overlaying global biodiversity hotspots with conservation gaps for hotspots. Most hotspots for Chinese endemic seed plant species are badly protected. Only 26.48% of the hotspot areas of Chinese endemic seed plant species were covered by nature reserves. We suggest that it is essential to pay more attention to herbaceous plants in biodiversity conservation, and to promote a network function of nature reserves within these hotspots in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epiphytic lichens are an important component of forest biodiversity. Many of them are threatened and conservation planning therefore requires comprehensive information about their distribution over space and time. However, besides topo-climatic predictors, the spatial pattern of epiphytic lichens is also closely related to the tree characteristics on which they grow. In this paper, we tested the hypothesis that habitat specialist lichens restricted to specific habitat types and common species with a wide range of ecological preferences may respond differently to the topo-climatic and forest-structure predictors. We applied the generalized linear model (GLM) and maximum entropy (Maxent) for 20 epiphytic lichen species in Switzerland at different spatial scales (1 km and 100 m). To evaluate the influence of forest structure on the epiphytic lichen distribution, models with three sets of predictors (topo-climatic, forest-structure and combined predictor sets) were fitted for each species. Canopy height of forest stands and forest type were tested as a proxy of forest structure. Our results showed that both the techniques applied predicted well the occurrences of habitat specialists but the models of common lichens were overall less accurate. Forest-structure predictors significantly improved the models of rare and threatened species with specific microhabitat requirements, i.e. mainly forest lichens ( Arthonia byssacea , Bactrospora dryina , Calicium viride , Gyalecta truncigena and Vulpicida pinastri ), but they did not contribute considerably to the models of common species that grow equally well on the bark of different trees within or outside of forests (e.g. Caloplaca cerina , Phaeophyscia orbicularis , Physcia stellaris and Xanthoria parietina ). We recommend using high-resolution forest-structure data for robust and reliable predictions of the distribution patterns of threatened epiphytic lichens, most of which are habitat specialists. The inclusion of these data will allow a hypothesis-driven sampling strategy, and will thus increase the effectiveness of the field sampling needed for searching large regions thoroughly to discover new sites where rare and threatened species occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Already heavily impacted by coastal development, estuarine vegetated habitats (seagrasses, salt marshes, and mangroves) are increasingly affected by climate change via accelerated sea level rise, changes in the frequency and intensity of precipitation and storms, and warmer ocean temperatures. Conservation of these sensitive and vulnerable habitats requires the recognition of climate change effects so environmental managers can develop and apply appropriate intervention and adaptation strategies where possible. Here we focus on Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass), a foundation species of New England (USA) coastal marshes. A growing body of evidence suggests this species is disappearing rapidly from wetlands in the region, leading to reductions in habitat quality, plant diversity, carbon sequestration, erosion resistance and coastal protection. We grew S . patens under five inundation and three precipitation regimes, monitored changes in its extent within two Southern New England coastal marshes (2000–2014), and used water level and precipitation data to detect changes in environmental conditions affecting these marshes. Our results suggest that current inundation patterns have reduced the persistence of S . patens , while short-term drought did not appear responsible for vegetation changes or habitat conversion. We conclude that accelerated sea level rise is incompatible with the long-term survival of S . patens within the current landscape footprint of Southern New England's coastal wetlands. We suggest that conservation actions focused on high marsh preservation concentrate on facilitating the process of marsh migration onto uplands by prioritizing buffer conservation, conducting barrier removal and allowing for retreat where feasible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is very rich in biodiversity, however, it is also characterized by a long history of civilization. As a result, China has a large number of threatened species. Recently the Chinese government evaluated the living status of plants, and published the China Biodiversity Red List: Higher Plants. However, little is known about how threatened plants are distributed and conserved in China. In this study, we developed a fine resolution distribution database for 3244 threatened plants, explored richness patterns and evaluated the in situ conservation status of the threatened plants by overlapping the species distribution with terrestrial national and provincial nature reserves (NNRs and PNRs) in China. We found the greatest richness of threatened plants in the southwestern region of mainland China (mainly Yunnan, southeastern Xizang and western Sichuan), northwestern Guangxi, northern Guangdong, Hainan Island and the mountainous region of Taiwan, while the lowest richness was found in Qinghai, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Chongqing Provinces. On average, NNRs covered 18.8%, and NNRs and PNRs together covered 27.5%, of threatened plant distribution areas. However, 827 threatened plants (including 627 species endemic to China) were not covered by NNRs and 397 threatened plants (including 293 endemic to China) were not covered by either NNRs or PNRs. We proposed that nature reserves specifically designed for threatened plants need to be established in South China, especially in the Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Xinjiang Hainan, and Zhejiang Provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land development contributes to the clearance of large trees that are sometimes offset with many smaller trees as compensatory wildlife habitat. But are many smaller trees a valid biodiversity offset for the loss of a single large tree? To answer this question, we tested predictions underpinned by island biogeography theory. Targeting birds, we investigated size and landscape context effects at 72 trees of three sizes (small, medium, and large) located in four landscape contexts (reserves, pasture, urban parklands, and urban built-up areas). Significant positive relationships occurred between tree basal area and bird abundance and species richness in all landscape contexts. SLOSS (single large or several small) analysis revealed that in modified landscapes, several small and medium trees supported an equivalent number of individuals and species as a single large tree, but the same pattern was weaker in reserves. Extrapolated rarefaction curves revealed that in reserves and urban built-up areas, many small or medium trees accumulated the same number or more species than large trees. However, in pasture and urban parklands, many small or medium trees accumulated fewer species than large trees. Overall, 29% of bird species were recorded only at large trees, highlighting that many smaller trees will not be suitable habitat compensation for all species. Complementary approaches to biodiversity offsets are needed, balancing large tree preservation and revegetation. Response patterns for birds at trees conformed to some biogeographic predictions (species–area relationship), but not others (habitat–isolation relationship), underscoring the need for novel conceptual frameworks for habitat structures in modified landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for wildlife products drives an illegal trade estimated to be worth up to $10 billion per year, ranking it amongst the top transnational crimes in terms of value. Orchids are one of the best-selling plants in the legal horticultural trade but are also traded illegally and make up 70% of all species listed by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). To study consumer preferences for horticultural orchids we use choice experiments to survey 522 orchid buyers online and at large international orchid shows. Using latent class modelling we show that different groups of consumers in our sample have distinct preferences, and that these groups are based on gender, genera grown, online purchasing and type of grower. Over half of our sample, likely to be buyers of mass-produced orchids, prefer white, multi-flowered plants. Of greater conservation interest were a smaller group consisting of male hobbyist growers who buy their orchids online, and who were willing to pay significantly more for species that are rare in trade. This is the first in-depth study of consumer preferences in the international orchid trade and our findings confirm the importance of rarity as a driver of hobbyist trade. We show that market-research methods are a new tool for conservationists that could provide evidence for more effective conservation of species threatened by trade, especially via campaigns that focus on demand reduction or behaviour change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collecting seed from natural plant populations is a key tool for conservation, ecological restoration, assisted migration, studying plant mating systems, and crop breeding. Many collections rely on simple, broadly-applied rules-of-thumb for minimum sample sizes, regardless of species’ natural history, and are likely inadequate for obtaining sufficient genetic representation. There is a current paucity of information about how various logistical and biological factors influence seed sampling outcomes. Here we use simulated and empirical data to, for the first time, quantitatively evaluate the degree to which collection effectiveness is influenced by spatial arrangement, sampling intensity, and species’ reproductive biology. We clearly and quantitatively demonstrate that collections with spatially limited or biased sampling arrangements, or collections from species with high selfing or low dispersal, will need substantially more samples than are commonly recommended, or else will fail to reach the targeted genetic diversity. We also show that the marginal gain from sampling additional maternal plants will nearly always exceed that of additional seeds. Lastly we show that random sampling outperforms “easy access” and “transect” sampling by 70% and 30%, respectively. Overall, we conclude that collection guidelines tailored to particular taxa will help facilitate optimal sampling design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacti are a priority for conservation because their slow recovery rates and high habitat specificity make their populations particularly susceptible to looters who raid their populations, anthropogenic disturbance and climate change (CC). Identifying the most damaging threat is critical to the direction and efficiency of conservation efforts. We analyzed the impacts of looting, disturbance and CC on the geographically rare globose cactus Coryphantha werdermannii in Coahuila, Northern Mexico. We collected evidence on looting and estimated the impacts of seed and adult plant extraction through demographic models. We compared 10 sites differing in disturbance intensity and analyzed the effect on plant density, size structure and reproduction. The potential distribution of C . werdermannii under current conditions and future CC was assessed through ecological niche modeling. We found that looting is mostly confined to seeds, which have little impact on population growth and therefore not responsible for population decline. As in many globose cacti, the density of C . werdermannii populations increased with disturbance, likely because cattle grazing increases recruitment rates. Contrastingly, even the most optimistic CC scenarios suggest a 90% reduction in the potential distribution area by 2050, indicating that C . werdermannii is an endangered species most threatened by CC. We suggest that relocation programs and the maintenance of livestock levels appropriate for this species (moderate-high) may effectively counteract or delay the effects of CC. Our results suggest that current efforts are devoted to relatively minor threats, while CC is neglected, and highlight the importance of formal assessments of multiple threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taxonomic and aesthetic biases permeate biodiversity conservation. We used the LIFE program—the European Union's funding scheme for the environment—to explore the economic dimension of biases in species- and habitat-level conservation. Between 1992 and 2020, animal species received three times more funding than plants. Within plants, species at northern latitudes, with broader ranges, and with blue/purple flowers received more funds regardless of their extinction risk. Conversely, species online popularity was only weakly positively associated with conservation expenditure. At the habitat-level, we found no relationship between expenditure and conservation status of the habitat. Our results can inform ways forward to achieve conservation goals that are comprehensive, sustainable, and cost-effective. • Plant conservation is much less financed than animal conservation. • Plants at high latitude, with wider ranges and attractive flowers receive more funds. • Plant conservation funds are distributed regardless to extinction risk. • Habitat level conservation is less biased compared to species-level conservation. • Conservation areas are equally financed across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant species play an important role in maintaining the stability of arid ecosystems. Due to low biodiversity, species distribution patterns and richness are infrequently investigated in arid lands. Here, we take the Xinjiang Urgur Autonomous Region (Province), a large area in arid northwest China, as a case to investigate the patterns of woody species diversity and their relationship to environmental factors. At the same time, we aim to evaluate the current protected areas network and improve conservation planning based on woody plant diversity of Xinjiang. In this study, we sampled 133 woody forest species and 220 woody xerophytic species, which are about 10% of the plant species and near 80% of woody species in this region, and modeled current and last glacial maximum (LGM) distributions of these species using the method of species distribution modeling (SDM). Based on the results of SDMs, species richness and LGM refugia were estimated for forest and xerophytic species. Then, we assessed correlations between current species richness and environmental variables as well as glacial refugia. Finally, we applied the digital approach of systematic conservation planning to determine priority areas based on patterns of species diversity. Precipitation variables and glacial refugia have influenced the distribution patterns of woody species diversity for forest and xerophytic species in this province. In our proposed network for biodiversity conservation, high priority areas mostly coincided with zones having low species diversity, and many of these concerned areas fall outside of the ranges of the current existing conservation network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As habitat loss accelerates, there is pressing need to preserve plant genetic diversity in ex situ conservation collections. Population structure (i.e. subdivision), which is common in plants, may be an important consideration when planning such collections because it results in locally restricted alleles or traits, which have high conservation, ecological, or economic value. Nonetheless, common protocols for ex situ collections do not consider population structure. To help inform collection decisions, we utilize computer simulations with different levels of realistic hierarchical population structure to evaluate the expected performance of an array of sample sizes and several spatial distributions of sampled populations. We quantify how population structure affects the expected probability of capturing alleles (especially rare alleles). We also test the effect of family-level structure due to pollen pool composition (e.g., sibling clusters). Our findings suggest that when range-wide population structure exists, the spatial distribution of sampled populations is crucial: sampling one population per region (dispersed sampling) captured up to 175% more alleles than sampling all populations in one region (constrained sampling), and nearly as much as sampling all existing populations. The spatial effect is strongest for poorly-connected (low gene flow) species. Under realistic population structure, moderate sampling (25-30 individuals per population) from few but widely-spaced populations performs optimally; this differs from previous recommended guidelines that do not consider structure. There is smaller effect of the pollen pool composition on collection performance. We conclude that seed collection plans should incorporate spatial considerations, especially for poorly-connected taxa. Our simulation approach can be extended to particular species and other spatial patterns. We use the butternut tree as a case study for collection planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biodiversity hotspots are 35 biogeographical regions that have both exceptional endemism and extreme threats to their vegetation integrity, and as such are global conservation priorities. Nonetheless, prior estimates of natural intact vegetation (NIV) in the hotspots are generally imprecise, indirect, coarse, and/or dated. Using moderate- and high-resolution satellite imagery as well as maps of roads, settlements, and fires, we estimate the current extent of NIV for the hotspots. Our analysis indicates that hotspots retain 14.9% of their total area as NIV (~3,546,975 km²). Most hotspots have much less NIV than previously estimated, with half now having ⩽10% NIV by area, a threshold beneath which mean NIV patch area declines precipitously below 1000 ha. Hotspots with the greatest previous NIV estimates suffered the greatest apparent losses. The paucity of NIV is most pronounced in biomes dominated by dry forests, open woodlands, and grasslands, reflecting their historic affinities with agriculture, such that NIV tends to concentrate in select biomes. Low and declining levels of NIV in the hotspots underscore the need for an urgent focus of limited conservation resources on these biologically crucial regions [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utility of spatial conservation prioritization (SCP), could be limited by the biases produced by taxonomic uncertainty and by the lack of an accepted taxonomic checklist for a diverse group of species. Using information on the endemic cacti of the Atacama Desert and Mediterranean Chile, we assessed the implications for SCP of the existence of two contrasting taxonomies. Biological and socioeconomic criteria were combined to design conservation networks for two widely used taxonomic checklists of endemic Chilean cacti. We analyzed the spatial distribution of these conservation networks to assess the congruence of the taxonomic checklists and evaluated whether our models match the geographic distribution of the National System of Protected Areas. The conservation networks had low similarity. However, consensus scenarios revealed several coincident priority sites. Gap analyses indicated that one-third of the species were completely unprotected but that all species were satisfactorily protected in the consensus scenario. Consensus scenarios based on different checklists can improve SCP because this approach is less affected by taxonomic uncertainty. It is more conservative (without a priori taxonomic decisions) and robust (priority sites are supported by more than one scenario). Given the narrow distribution of cacti, effective conservation actions demand environmental actions in a geographically explicit framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]