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Over the last century, numbers of wild tigers (Panthera tigris) have crashed, while human populations have boomed. Here we investigate future trajectories of human population within tiger range through analysis of the shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs). These five pathways describe urban, rural and total population distributions by decade through 2100, based on plausible but contrasting scenarios of economic, education, migration, and urbanization policy. In 2010 approximately 57 million people lived in regions defined as “tiger conservation landscapes” (or TCLs); 8% of sympatric people lived in towns and cities that occupied 4% of tiger range. We show that tigers could share these same geographies with as few as 40 million (30% decline compared to 2010) or as many as 106 million people (an increase of 85%) by 2100. Those populations could be as much as 64%, or as little as 17%, urbanized, depending on the pathway. Urban areas are likely to expand, displacing between 6 and 22% of tiger's current range, depending on how urban growth is managed. Human population density thresholds compatible with tigers vary by region, from 140 persons/km2 in the Indian subcontinent, to 10 persons/km2 in the Russian Far East and northern China. SSP3, a future where nations indulge regional rivalries, would make conservation more difficult, whereas SSP1, with a focus on well-managed urbanization and education, could help relieve pressures. Tigers are a conservation-reliant species and will likely remain so through the 21st century, therefore we suggest coupling continued site-level protection with efforts to develop constituencies for conservation in Asia's burgeoning cities.

The illegal trade in tiger bones and body parts is crippling the remaining populations of tigers worldwide, but what effect does this trade have on other wildlife that get caught in the cross fire? The Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) is the only species of tapir found outside of South America, yet little is known of this subspecies despite its large size. Aside from habitat loss and an encroaching human population, effects of wildlife trade are taking their toll on this endangered species. In Sumatra Indonesia, tigers and tapirs are known to share habitat, potentially leaving tapirs vulnerable to fall victim to snare entrapment. This study looks at correlations between tiger and tapir indices as well as active tiger snares within Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia over a four-year period. Data was provided by the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry and Fauna and Flora International, and this study investigated the frequency, and spatial relationships between all three variables. Across the study period, tiger snares increased significantly in numbers and spatial extent, indicating increased illegal poaching in KSNP. Areas with high frequencies of tiger evidence also showed high frequencies of tapir evidence, but while tiger frequency remained consistent, tapirs displayed a decreasing trend. Spatially, tiger evidence moved further away from snare and tapir locations over time, indicating tigers, (while being the target species) may display a greater response to poaching threats than tapirs. Tapir mortality was significantly correlated with the number of snares per kilometre surveyed, further supporting a negative impact from snares on tapirs. This study recommends long-term analysis to accurately determine the current population of Malayan tapirs in Sumatra and identify population trends. Identifying Sumatra's tapir population and recovery in response to poaching and habitat loss threats, must be determined to accurately inform conservation management actions of Sumatra's National Parks, and halt the decline of this illusive species.

The distribution of mammals is determined by a suite of endogenous and exogenous factors. In territorial, polygynous species like tigers (Panthera tigris), males often center their space-use around female territories, repelling competitors from these areas. Competition among males for females leads to increased mortality of both sexes and infanticide of unrelated cubs, which can lead to population declines. We hypothesized that increased territorial overlap among adult male tigers and elevated levels of inter and intra-sex competition would be manifest in populations with male-biased adult sex ratios (ASR). We also assessed whether inter-sex variation in adult survival or degree of habitat connectivity resulted in skewed ASR. We evaluated these hypotheses using camera trap data from three tiger populations occupying habitat patches with varying levels of connectivity and ASRs. Data were analyzed using multi-state occupancy models, where states were defined as habitat use by one or more male tigers in sites with and without female use. As predicted, in populations with male-biased or even ASR we found evidence for increased spatial overlap between male tigers, particularly pronounced in areas adjacent to female territories. Given parity in adult survival, habitat fragmentation likely caused male-biased ASR. Our results suggest that the persistence of small tiger populations in habitat patches with male-biased ASR may be significantly compromised by behavior-mediated endogenous demographic processes that are often overlooked. In habitat fragments with pronounced male biased ASR, population recovery of territorial carnivores may require timely supplementation of individuals to compensate for population losses from intraspecific competition.

Ecologists have primarily focused their attention on how predator loss influences ecosystem structure and function in intact ecosystems, but rarely tested these ecological concepts in agricultural landscapes. We conducted a study in western Bhutan on the inter-specific dynamics between tigers, leopards, and dholes, and their subsequent impact on livestock and crop losses faced by agro-pastoralists. We found that when a tiger was present in forests surrounding villages, leopards and dholes occupied areas closer to village croplands and preyed on a higher relative abundance of wild herbivore crop raiders, thereby significantly reducing crop (β = −2.25, p

Sporadic sightings of the endangered Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica along the China-Russia border during the late 1990s sparked efforts to expand this subspecies distribution and abundance by restoring potentially suitable habitats in the Changbai Mountains. To guide science-based recovery efforts and provide a baseline for future monitoring of this border population, empirical, quantitative information is needed on what resources and management practices promote or limit the occurrence of tigers in the region. We established a large-scale field camera-trapping network to estimate tiger density, survival and recruitment in the Hunchun Nature Reserve and the surrounding area using an open population spatially explicit capture-recapture model. We then fitted an occupancy model that accounted for detectability and spatial autocorrelation to assess the relative influence of habitat, major prey, disturbance and management on tiger habitat use patterns. Our results show that the ranges of most tigers abut the border with Russia. Tiger densities ranged between 0.20 and 0.27 individuals/100 km2 over the study area; in the Hunchun Nature Reserve, the tiger density was three times higher than that in the surrounding inland forested area. Tiger occupancy was strongly negatively related to heavy cattle grazing, human settlements and roads and was positively associated with sika deer abundance and vegetation cover. These findings can help to identify the drivers of tiger declines and dispersal limits and refine strategies for tiger conservation in the human-dominated transboundary landscape. Progressively alleviating the impacts of cattle and human disturbances on the forest, and simultaneously addressing the economic needs of local communities, should be key priority actions to increase tiger populations. The long-term goal is to expand tiger distribution by improving habitats for large ungulates.

Caspian tigers ( Panthera tigris virgata ), a now extinct subspecies genetically similar to the Amur tiger ( P . t . altaica ), occurred until the mid-1900s from modern day Turkey and Iran east through Central Asia into northwest China. A literature analysis we conducted revealed that Caspian tigers occupied ca. 800,000–900,000 km 2 historically, mostly within isolated patches of tugay- and reed-dominated riparian ecosystems at densities up to 2–3 tigers/100 km 2 . Herein we explored options to restore tigers to Central Asia using Amur tiger as an “analog” form. Spatial analyses based on remote sensing data indicated that options for Amur tiger introduction are limited in Central Asia but at least two habitat patches remain potentially suitable for tiger re-establishment, both in Kazakhstan, with a total area of 2 . The most promising site—the Ili river delta and adjacent southern coast of Balkhash Lake—hosts ca. 7000 km 2 of suitable habitat that our tiger-prey population models suggest could support a population of 64–98 tigers within 50 years if 40–55 tigers are translocated and current Ili river flow regimes are maintained. Re-establishment of tigers in Central Asia may yet be tenable if concerns of local communities in the Ili-Balkhash region are carefully addressed, prey population restoration precedes tiger introduction, Ili river water supplies remain stable, and the Amur tiger's phenotype proves adaptable to the arid conditions of the introduction site.

Managing populations of large carnivore species that are threatened yet in competition with each other presents a conservation challenge over which species to prioritise. We investigated interspecific competition between the Endangered tiger and two sympatric carnivore species (Near-Threatened leopard and Endangered dhole) in Malaysia. We used a spatially-explicit camera trapping method to sample the three carnivore species in order to assess their: relative abundance; spatial co-occurrence; and, temporal overlap. Our focal landscape consists of two adjacent study areas that have different forest management regimes: 1) Royal Belum State Park (RBSP) which has relatively higher levels of enforcement resulting in high tiger and prey densities, and 2) Temengor Forest Reserve (TFR) which has no enforcement resulting in low tiger and prey densities. Our analyses found interspecific competition in the form of fine-scale spatial avoidance of tiger by leopard in RBSP, but not in TFR. Thus, leopard was less likely to occur in forest patches with greater tiger presence in RBSP. Dhole was not detected in RBSP, and showed no fine-scale spatial avoidance of tiger on TRF. It was unclear if absence of dhole in RBSP was due to the high tiger density, or another factor such as disease. Regardless, our results indicate dhole can persist in human-degraded forest landscapes. Neither leopards nor dholes showed any major temporal avoidance of tigers on either site. Our findings of fine-scale spatial avoidance by leopard towards tiger and possible exclusion of dhole by tiger in areas of high tiger density were similar to that found in other areas of Asia. Our study demonstrates that degraded forest can be important for threatened carnivores. It also provides a reminder that efforts to recover tiger populations, a conservation priority, may require flanking measures to secure meso-predator populations, especially those forced into edge environments where they come into greater contact with people.

Biodiversity awareness days are awareness-raising interventions of increasing popularity. But what makes an awareness day campaign successful has been overlooked. We sought to determine (1) if species or taxa awareness days led to awareness proxied by engagement for information, (2) if some awareness days were more effective than others, and the possible reasons for success, and (3) if awareness days led to positive conservation action. Google Trends and Wikipedia page views of the subject of biodiversity awareness days with a history of at least five years were compiled and analyzed. For 16 awareness days examined, there was an average of 3.07% increase in Google searches and 34.0% increase in Wikipedia page views. Awareness days for pangolin, polar bear, turtle, and tiger (25% of taxa) had significant increases in both metrics, and 43.8% of taxa had success in at least one metric. Over half of taxonomic groups, which include species considered charismatic and appealing, saw no clear increase in information-seeking behavior. Tweets containing a call to action had a positive relationship with the number of retweets. Some awareness days appeared to correspond to an increase in conservation fund-raising for advocacy groups and charities that participated in the event. Overall, the results suggest that resources diverted to promoting awareness days might be better allocated to less popular threatened species, and that advocacy groups and charities may want to consider optimizing their messages and participation to maximize benefits of these events.

The separation of people from their landscapes undergirds conservation action, especially in the global south. Such a ‘fortress conservation’ approach is based on the flawed idea that local people's use of forests endangers biodiversity and therefore habitats should be protected by force if necessary. Such a conservation approach runs contrary to the recent understanding that ecosystems once perceived as ‘wilderness’ have been transformed by people. Long-term interdisciplinary research has produced a nuanced understanding of the linkages between ecological and social processes. An example of such long-term engagement is a series of programmes by Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) in the Western Ghats and the Himalayas. We describe programmes in four sites: Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger reserve, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve, Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary and Vembanad Ramsar site. Our experiences highlight primarily, a broadening of the initial focus on the ecological dynamics to include social dimensions. Secondly, a programmatic rather than a project-mode approach has enabled a clear long-term vision. Third, the research and action work has continued a tradition in conservation science of field-based, empirical work driven by theory as well as produced grounded knowledge. Such a long-term ‘dirt on the boots’ approach has built a platform from which ATREE is able to launch programmes that have made an impact on livelihoods and landscapes. And finally, long-term engagement and a strong network of local actors have allowed us to implement and inform conservation policy.

Efforts are on to recover tiger populations range-wide, but we lack suitable metrics to characterise and evaluate such recoveries. Identifying such metrics requires an understanding of tiger population dynamics and its ecological correlates in either recovering populations or those exposed to anthropogenic influences. We monitored a recovering tiger population from 2004 to 2017 in Rajaji National Park, India. Using photographic data and spatial capture-recapture models in an inviolate site vacated by pastoralists (zone 1), we identified demographic parameters of a recovering population. By contrasting it with a site that is presently occupied by pastoralists (zone 3) and one that is isolated (zone 3), we identified conditions facilitating recovery. In zone 1, connected to a large source population in Corbett Tiger Reserve, density increased from 2.08 tigers/100 km2 to 7.07 tigers/100 km2 corresponding to an annual growth rate of 4.5%. Density also increased in zone 2 (2.6 tigers/100 km2 to 6.22 tigers/100 km2), but estimated apparent survival was 0.47 against 0.81 in zone 1. Recovery in zone 1 was accompanied by increased survival of females, while female tenure was shorter in zone 2. Due to the lack of functional connectivity, tigers in zone 3 are facing local extinction. Our results demonstrate that creating inviolate spaces to secure breeding populations and maintaining landscape-wide connectivity to expand breeding cores is critical for recovery. We highlight that relying solely on population increase may lead to unreliable inferences about population performance and instead suggest tracking survival and female land tenure to qualify recovery and success of conservation interventions.

Many remaining wild tiger populations persist in small numbers at sites where densities are less than half of their estimated carrying capacity and will continue to decline if not protected from poaching. Although law enforcement is frequently used to protect tigers and their prey, the conditions under which enforcement is likely to be effective in recovering small populations of wild tigers are not well understood. We evaluated the effectiveness of a law enforcement strategy to recover tigers and their prey in Lao PDR where extensive habitat provided favorable conditions for large increases in tiger numbers if protected from poaching. Over a seven-year period, we monitored along a theory of change to evaluate assumptions about the causal linkages between intermediate results and biological outcomes. Although we found a strong positive correlation between funding for enforcement and days patrolled (rs = 0.786, n = 7, p = 0.05) and a significant negative correlation between days patrolled and overall hunting catch per unit effort (rs = − 0.893,n = 7, p

The survival of many populations of threatened mammals depends on the willingness of human communities to coexist with them. Gender is an important factor because men and women often have different perceptions of wildlife that influence their willingness to coexist with wildlife. While previous studies have hypothesized what may drive gendered perceptions of wildlife, research investigating the underlying drivers of these differences is lacking, especially in developing countries. The objective of this paper is to identify the underlying drivers of gendered differences in attitude toward globally endangered tigers (Panthera tigris) in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal, where women are less likely to have a positive attitude. To accomplish this, we administered a social survey to 499 respondents living near the park. We analyzed survey data using nested linear regression models and decomposition analysis. Over 90% of the gender gap in attitude was explained through these analyses, with beliefs about tigers (e.g., benefits and costs) explaining two-thirds of the gap. The belief that tigers contribute to a healthy forest, by itself, accounted for one-third of the gender gap. Socio-economic characteristics explained 12% and experiences with tigers and perceptions of and control over risk each accounted for 6% or less of the gender gap. These results suggest that beliefs, rather than socio-economics, experience, or risk, underlie the majority of the gendered differences in attitudes toward tigers in CNP and that an appreciation of the ecosystem value of tigers plays a key role in people's positive attitudes. Analyses of gendered differences in attitudes are important for developing conservation interventions that address perspectives and issues of the entire population.

India harbours the largest wild tiger population in the world and Tropical Dry Forest areas constitute the largest habitat for them. Recent extinctions, however, from two high profile tiger reserves, highlight the vulnerability of tiger in this habitat. Our examination of historic range areas for tigers shows that populations are disappearing at a faster rate in Tropical Dry Forest (64% sites suffering local extinction in 100 years) than in any other suitable habitat in India. Focusing on data from the Tropical Dry Forest of Panna Tiger Reserve in central India, we examine the spatial ecology of the tiger population prior to its local extinction. We analyse home range sizes, overlaps and shifts, as well as the range expansion and contraction of radio-collared tigers between 1996 and 2005. In this reserve, the average annual home range sizes for both males (n = 2) and females (n = 4) were three to four times larger than those reported so far from other tropical habitats in India — male: mean 179.3 ± 11.8 km2 (95% Fixed kernel; n = 7); female: mean 46.6 ± 3.7 km2; (95% Fixed kernel; n = 16). Adult female home ranges were exclusive and overlapped little with neighbouring female ranges (3 ± 1.46%, n = 6). Male home ranges were not exclusive: resident floater males shared space with territorial males and mated with resident females. Home ranges of all breeding radio-collared tigers extended beyond the protected area boundary and were exposed to edge effects that exist at the periphery and outside. With such spatial use patterns, security and management measures provided within the boundary are unlikely to be very successful in protecting the population. Protected Areas in Tropical Dry Forest across India are relatively small (366.92 ± 422.12 km2 SD) and historical trends point towards a scale-mismatch that exists between the size of Protected Areas and the space use requirements of tigers. This scale mismatch adds to the vulnerability of existing small populations and perhaps explains why tiger populations in Tropical Dry Forest have disappeared at a faster rate than in any other tiger habitat of the sub-continent.

Increasing livestock grazing in forests has intensified human-wildlife conflicts and caused habitat degradation for threatened species. To balance conservation and local community development, it is crucial to understand if livestock loss in natural habitats plays a role in household livelihood decisions. We used the giant panda habitat in China and the tiger habitat in India as case studies to investigate if livestock loss impacts livestock holding size and if higher loss rate shifts households away from livestock grazing in the future. We applied negative binomial regression and cost-benefit analysis to household level data from 281 Chinese households and 369 Indian households. We found that the livestock loss rate did not impact the number of livestock in China, but it did negatively impact the number of livestock in India. Chinese households were more constrained by labor availability for livestock expansion, while Indian households were limited by financial capacity. However, households tended to ignore the potential livestock loss in future livelihood decisions for both landscapes. Emerging livestock types could change the dynamic and the Indian case indicates a possible win-win solution. New hybrid cattle produced more than seven times the net benefit, but with only 46% potential cost of livestock loss compared to traditional cattle. Therefore, households can simultaneously produce more profits and reduce livestock loss by shifting to hybrid cattle. As higher profit is more important than perceived livestock loss risk in deciding the livelihood practices, better market instruments and assistance should be provided to promote the change.

The unprecedented economic growth occurring across Southeast Asia is causing large tracts of rainforest to be logged, converted to plantations or fragmented by infrastructure development. It also opens up forest to poachers which, in combination, places acute pressure on the region’s large carnivores. Here, we focus on one of Malaysia’s three priority tiger landscapes that illustrate these regional conservation challenges. The Royal Belum State Park (RBSP) and Temengor Forest Reserve (TFR) are connected by a strip of unprotected forest with portions assigned for conversion to monoculture plantations. To support government in setting aside wildlife corridors, we assessed: the abundance of tiger and principle prey under two different forest management regimes in RBSP and TFR; and, tiger habitat use in the unprotected forest strip, from which a spatially-explicit habitat model was produced to identify priority points of forest connectivity. Camera trapping revealed a threefold higher tiger density in the protected area (RBSP) than the forest reserve subjected to selective logging (TFR), which was likely explained by the higher relative abundance of its principal prey, seemingly lower levels of poaching as indicated from an independent study and presence of armed forces that may have deterred poachers. Two forest corridors were identified as being important for maintaining landscape connectivity and these findings were used to successfully lobby state government in affording them protection. This research offers an urgently needed approach for better managing Malaysian tiger habitat within forest reserves, which are predominantly designated for logging and have weak or non-existent wildlife protection measures.

Trade in large cats (Panthera and Neofelis species), and indeed other wild cats, is a clear impediment to their conservation. Myanmar is an important country for cat conservation, both because of the presence of significant populations of threatened species but equally as it is positioned strategically between China, Thailand and India. Here we analyse data from large cat skins and other cat parts observed openly for sale at two border towns in Myanmar. Data from Tachilek on the Myanmar–Thailand border (19 surveys, 1991–2013) and Mong La on the Myanmar–China border (7 surveys, 2001–2014) show that the most common species in trade was the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (482 individuals; observed in 22/24 surveys), followed by leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis (458 individuals; 11/12 surveys), leopard Panthera pardus (344; 22/24 surveys), tiger P. tigris (207 individuals; 21/24 surveys) and Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temmincki (135 individuals; 10/12 surveys). Volumes of skins held no relationship with the number of other cat parts (e.g. skull, claws and canines) in trade. The number of small cat skins observed was positively related to the number of large cat skins. There were no indications that leopards or clouded leopards were used as replacement for tigers. While the number of shops selling cat parts increased in Mong La from 6 in 2006 to 21 in 2014 there was no associated temporal increase in trade, whereas the number of shops decreased from 35 in 2000 to 6 in 2013 in Tachilek and this coincided with a decrease in available cat parts. These data show that in the last decades the trade of cat parts from Myanmar into Thailand has diminished and reaffirms the role of China in the trade of cats out of Myanmar.

This paper provides the first in-depth exploration of tiger killing behaviour in communities bordering the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh. Our findings demonstrate the complexity of carnivore killing behaviour in situations of human–wildlife conflict. We find that killings are not purely retaliatory in nature (i.e. driven by a desire for retribution following livestock depredation or attacks on humans by tigers), and that previous negative experience of tigers is not the sole determinant of villagers’ acceptance of killing behaviour. Inter-related socio-psychological factors (risk perceptions, beliefs about tigers and the people that kill tigers, general attitude towards tigers), perceived failings on the part of local authorities whom villagers believe should resolve village tiger incidents, perceived personal rewards (financial rewards, enhanced social status, medicinal or protective value of tiger body parts), and contextual factors (the severity and location of tiger incidents) motivate people to kill tigers when they enter villages and foster the widespread acceptance of this behaviour. The complexity of these factors highlights the need for conservation practitioners to explore and understand people’s motivations for killing endangered carnivore species, in order to address better the community-led killing of these animals. For the Sundarbans area, knowledge of these motivational factors can be used to develop conservation actions suitable for developing both communities’ capacity and, crucially, desire to co-exist with tigers and to respond with non-lethal action to village tiger incidents.

Poaching, prey depletion and habitat destruction have decimated the world’s wild tiger population to fewer than 3200–4000. Despite focused efforts, poaching continues to be the key threat to tiger populations in India, home to more than half of the world’s tigers. A rise in the number of incidences of tiger poaching and trafficking may not essentially represent an increase in the actual occurrence of tiger poaching and trafficking, but can instead be an indication of better enforcement. With ad hoc detection rates, it becomes difficult to estimate the true quantum of poaching and the efficiency of enforcement. We empirically estimate the probability of occurrence of tiger crime and that of detecting it during periods of 3–7 years in the past 40 years in the 605 districts of India. We test the hypotheses that tiger crime is influenced by the presence of tiger trade hubs, proximity to a number of tiger habitats, and that tiger poachers prefer to use rail routes over road highways. The annual probability of detecting tiger crime was estimated to be highest (0.46, 95% CI = 0.38–0.54) in the period between 1993 and 1995. Our results identify 73 districts as current tiger crime hotspots with high (>0.5) probability of occurrence of tiger crime. We propose that the probability of occurrence of tiger crime can be a more reliable estimator of changing poaching pressures and that probability of detecting tiger crime provides a robust estimate of the efficiency in tackling tiger poaching and trafficking.

Wild tiger numbers continue to decline despite decades of conservation action. Identification, conservation and restoration of tiger habitat will be a key component of recovering tiger numbers across Asia. To identify suitable habitat for tigers in the Russian Far East, we adopted a niche-based tiger habitat modeling approach, including biotic interactions with ungulate prey species, human activities and environmental variables to identify mechanisms driving selection and distribution of tiger habitat. We conducted >28,000 km of winter snow tracking surveys in 2004/2005 over 266,000 km 2 of potential tiger

The Global Tiger Recovery Program has identified increasing prey populations as a crucial component of recovering wild tiger numbers because prey density is a key determinant of tiger density, especially for Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) living at the northern limit of tiger distribution, where both tiger and prey densities are the lowest range wide. To understand potential prey requirements for Amur tigers, we developed a predictive energetics model based on allometric scaling and literature values for the costs of reproduction to estimate energetic requirements. We parameterized the energetics model with empirical activity budgets and movement rates estimated from 5 GPS radiocollared tigers between 2009 and 2013. To avoid starvation, adult male tigers must consume a minimum of 5.2 kg/day, non-reproducing adult females 3.9 kg/day, and an adult female raising 4 cubs to independence needs 200% more energy, or an average of 11.4 kg/day over the 651 day reproduction period. Given knowledge of Amur tiger diet composition and prey biomass in the Russian Far East, male tigers would consume 24.8 prey per year, non-reproducing females 18.2 prey per year, and a female raising 4 cubs 53.8 prey per year. However, our energetics model underestimated empirical consumption rates, emphasizing that while the relative costs of reproduction are valid, wild tigers are likely consuming more prey than predicted by basal metabolic demands alone. Quantifying the energetic requirements of tigers allows resource managers to estimate nutritional carrying capacity, estimate the impact of tigers on prey, and develop science-based conservation recommendations.

Ecosystem services have clear promise to help identify and protect priority areas for biodiversity. To leverage them effectively, practitioners must conduct timely analyses at appropriate scales, often with limited data. Here we use simple spatial analyses on readily available datasets to compare the distribution of five ecosystem services with tiger habitat in central Sumatra. We assessed services and habitat in 2008 and the changes in these variables under two future scenarios: a conservation-friendly Green Vision, and a Spatial Plan developed by the Indonesian government. In 2008, the range of tiger habitat overlapped substantially with areas of high carbon storage and sediment retention, but less with areas of high water yield and nutrient retention. Depending on service, location and spatial grain of analysis, there were both gains and losses from 2008 to each scenario; however, aggregate provision of each ecosystem service (except water yield) and total area of tiger habitat were higher in the Vision than the Plan, likely driven by an increase in forest cover in the Vision. Sub-watersheds with high levels of several ecosystem services contained substantially more tiger habitat than random subsets of sub-watersheds, suggesting that prioritizing ecosystem services could benefit tiger conservation. Our analyses provided input to government-led spatial planning and strategic environmental assessments in the study area, indicating that even under time and data constraints, policy-relevant assessments of multiple ecosystem services are feasible.

Livestock depredation by highly endangered Amur tigers is a major source of human-tiger conflict in Northeast China. We model livestock depredation risk to understand factors shaping the spatial distribution of depredation conflicts using Hunchun, China as a case study. Ungulate occupancy survey data, presence of ungulate snares and other landscape covariates (such as elevation, slope and tree cover) were first used to model ungulate prey densities using generalised least squares. Predicted densities were then incorporated together with landscape covariates as predictors for actual livestock depredation incidents in a zero-inflated negative binomial model for depredation risk. Lower overall prey densities were associated with proximity to snares, and other anthropogenic-related covariates like distances to villages and roads were also important predictors of prey densities. Depredation conflicts were associated with closer proximity to snares and rivers, greater distances from roads, greater tree cover, and deciduous forest habitats. High-risk areas were found to be concentrated in community-management zones in Hunchun National Nature Reserve (HNR). The results suggest that compensation payments for depredations within HNR provide an unwanted incentive for local people to continue to use the protected area (especially in community co-managed zones) as grazing lands, leading to increased conflict. Eliminating cattle and snaring from HNR and other tiger recovery zones within Northeast China may be essential to reduce conflicts and minimise detrimental impacts on tiger populations.

Resettlement of people for conservation is a contentious issue, but remains an important policy for conserving\ud species like tigers which require vast, inviolate habitats. Recommendations to resettle communities\ud should ideally be supported with careful evaluation of the needs of wildlife, socio-economic\ud characteristics of dependent communities and their attitudes, and we present one such case study. Using\ud a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 158 households across a gradient of tiger occupancy, we found\ud overwhelming preference for resettlement among pastoralist Gujjars and hence an unexpected conservation\ud opportunity to expand inviolate areas for tigers in the western Terai Arc Landscape. The main ‘push\ud factors’ identified were declining forest productivity adversely affecting incomes and lack of access to\ud education and health facilities. Thus, our findings represent a rare instance where excessive extraction\ud of natural resources, recognized to be detrimental for biodiversity, is also the primary driver for resettlement.\ud The desire for resettlement was also re-enforced by losses of livestock to diseases (72.7%) and carnivores\ud (25.1%), which was uncompensated in 89% of the cases, and positive experiences from previously\ud resettled households. Demand for resettlement was uniformly strong regardless of local tiger occupancy,\ud but we suggest that funding for resettlement be prioritized for households in high tiger occupancy areas,\ud given higher livestock depredation and possibilities for conflict. Our findings, therefore, represent a novel\ud landscape-level conservation strategy that takes account of socio-economic circumstances across a gradient\ud of predator pressure, and could build a constituency for tiger conservation among local communities\ud consistent with national and global objectives.

The assessment of the conservation status of wide ranging species depends on estimates of the magnitude of their population trends. The accuracy of trend estimates will depend on where and how many locations within a species' range are sampled. We ask how the spatial extent of sampling interacts with non-linear patterns in long-term trends to affect estimates of decline in standardised catch of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) on the east coast of Australia. We apply a Bayesian trend model that uses prior information on life-history traits to estimate trends where we use data from all regions versus spatial subsets of the data. As more regions were included in the model the trend estimates converged toward an overall decline of 71% over three generations. Trends estimated from data only from northern regions or southern regions underestimated and overestimated the regional decline, respectively. When a subset of regions was modelled, rather than the full data-set, the prior informed by life-history traits performed well, as did a weakly informed prior that allowed for high variation. The rate of decline in tiger sharks is consistent with a listing East Coast Australia tiger sharks as endangered under local legislation. Monitoring programs that aim to estimate population trends should attempt to cover the extremes and mid-points of a population's range. Life-history information can be used to inform priors for population variation and may give more accurate estimates of trends that can be justified in debates about the status of threatened species, particularly when sampling is limited.

Management of tigers is a response to a global conservation crisis. Range contraction, population decline, habitat fragmentation, prey loss, and poaching cause and aggravate this crisis. There is a debate as to whether conserving source sites or maintaining landscape connectivity is the greater priority. Both approaches rely on understanding environmental and anthropogenic factors. We used a large dataset from a nation-wide camera trapping survey to investigate factors affecting habitat use of tigers across the montane landscape of Bhutan. We tested the effects of environmental and anthropogenic covariates on habitat use while accounting for imperfect detection using a hierarchical occupancy model. Tiger habitat use showed a strong positive association with closeness to protected area, greater distance from human settlement and availability of abundant large prey. Our findings can help to identify the drivers of tiger decline and contribute to the refinement of conservation strategies to combat that decline in this montane conservation landscape. We provide a general approach to tiger conservation by highlighting the importance of understanding the basic ecology of this apex predator, including the relationship between environmental and anthropogenic variables and habitat use. Bhutan, with unusually strong environmental legislation, and a high percentage of its area protected and under contiguous forest cover, set the global standard in large carnivore conservation and is an important component of a wider conservation complex in South Asia.

Habitat loss, prey depletion, and direct poaching for the illegal wildlife trade are endangering large carnivores across the globe. Tigers (Panthera tigris) have lost 93% of their historical range and are experiencing rapid population declines. A dominant paradigm of current tiger conservation focuses on conservation of 6% of the presently occupied tiger habitat deemed to be tiger source sites. In Bhutan, little was known about tiger distribution or abundance during the time of such classification, and no part of the country was included in the so-called 6% solution. Here we evaluate whether Bhutan is a potential tiger source site by rigorously estimating tiger density and spatial distribution across the country. We used large scale remote-camera trapping across n = 1129 sites in 2014–2015 to survey all potential tiger range in Bhutan. We estimated 90 individual tigers (60 females) and a mean density of 0.23 adult tigers per 100 km2. Bhutan has significantly higher numbers of tigers than almost all identified source sites in the 6% solution. With low human density and large swaths of forest cover, the landscape of Bhutan and adjacent northeast India is a promising stronghold for tigers and should be prioritized in large-scale conservation efforts.

Most rare and endangered large carnivores such as tiger ( Panthera tigris ) exist in human-dominated landscapes as small, fragmented and isolated populations across their range. Connectivity between the remaining populations in the habitat fragments is essential for their long-term persistence and focus of management initiatives. We describe an individual-based, spatially explicit model of tiger movement behavior based on previously developed habitat models to (i) quantify inter-patch connectivity among major (protected) habitat patches in the Terai Arc Landscape of India and Nepal and (ii) investigate the effect of potential management initiatives, e.g. restoring corridors, on enhancing connectivity among fragmented protected habitats. Connectivity was not solely a function of distance between patches, but an outcome of the interplay between movement behavior and landscape composition, with asymmetric connectivity explained by canalizing or diffusing effects of the landscape, and depending on the landscape context of the starting patch. Patch connectivity was mostly determined by autocorrelation in tiger movement, the daily movement capacity, landscape structure, and the amount of matrix habitat. Several habitat patches were likely to be island-like and already effectively isolated. However, simulating scenarios of corridor restoration showed that most habitat patches in India and between India and Nepal could recover connectivity, which may mitigate negative genetic consequences of small population size and effective isolation on tiger populations in this landscape. Combining habitat models with individual-based models is a powerful and robust approach that could be widely applied to delineate dispersal corridors of large carnivores and quantify patch connectivity even if data are scarce.

Top predators often shape their communities through intraguild predation. Few studies have examined communities in which all three components—top predator, intermediate predators, and prey—occur at low densities; such disturbed systems are commonplace in Asia. We tested predictions from intraguild predation theory at a site where low density tigers (top predator), leopards and dholes (intermediate predators) competed for scarce prey. We employed occupancy modeling using sign surveys and camera trapping to investigate prey selection and spatial co-occurrence. Tiger and leopard occupancy matched the availability of their respective prey species, but leopard avoided pigs—a favored prey of tiger. Leopard and dhole had low rates of co-occurrence with tiger, and their detection probabilities were 47–52% lower in tiger-occupied open habitat (compared to closed), despite suitable prey there. Tiger occupancy was highest in prey-rich zones, whereas dholes were concentrated in a prey-poor zone where tigers were scarce, suggestive of mesopredator release. Activity periods of leopard and dhole (diurnal) were significantly different from tiger (nocturnal). In sum, tiger distribution appeared to be driven solely by prey availability, whereas leopard and dhole seemed to be influenced by prey availability and avoidance of tigers, mediated by habitat structure. Results agree with predictions that under intraguild predation the dominant predator’s distribution matches its resources, whereas intermediate predators trade-off food and safety. Knowledge of habitat-mediated risk effects could inform recovery efforts for low density tigers facing potential exploitation competition from more numerous leopards and dholes.

Biodiversity conservation often involves contentious and complex decision-making dilemmas that do not have clear solutions yet need urgent attention. Such problems typically involve stakeholders with diver- gent viewpoints and interests, leading to disagreement, controv ersy and politic al disput e. In these situ- ations it becomes critical for conserv ation managers and policy-makers to distingu ish the worldviews driving the debate. Focusing on the case of tiger conservation in India, we combined the Q-method wit ha traditional survey instrument to explore the diverse viewpoints of conservationists in India. The results indicate five domi nant viewpoints: (1) community- centered; (2) tiger-centered; (3) science and tourism- led; (4) instrumental approach; and (5) moral-centered. Based on these findings we identify the predict- able points of disagreement and potential areas of consensu s, and discuss the implications of the findingsfor addressing complex socio-ecological conservation challenges. Overall, our research suggests that despite ‘tiger–tribal’ issues often overwhelming conservation debates in India, there are important areas of overlap within the tiger-centered and community- centered viewpoints, and with other independent (albeit rarely evident) viewpoints. To help foster consensus, we suggest the need to avoid framing con- servation policy discussions along the tiger–tribal debate and instead focus on existing areas of agree- ment. Creating a discourse around these views can help organize conserv ation professiona ls into amore coherent and united body, crucial for effective participation in policy advocacy, design and impleme ntation. 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Current levels of illegal wildlife trade for many in-demand species are unsustainable and place them at a heightened risk of extinction. While several Asian protected areas standout for their remarkable successes in tackling poaching, the threat continues nonetheless. We analyse a decade of law enforcement data from a Sumatran protected area to investigate tiger and prey poaching trends, the arrests and subsequent prosecution of those involved. Some 3882 snare traps were destroyed, but a recent spike in tiger poaching revealed that twice the number of snares were annually encountered in 2013 and 2014 than the eight preceding years. We detected a change in the techniques employed for poaching tigers from 2011 onwards, with more frequent encounters of snare trap clusters that contained six or more tiger traps set in a single location. Comparing monthly patterns of poaching within years revealed an increase in deer, but not tiger, poaching during the month of Ramadan. This result confirmed long-held views by the ranger teams that local demand for meat increases in the build up to Idul Fitri, a main Islamic holiday. Finally, from 24 law enforcement operations conducted, 40 tiger poachers/traders were arrested with > 90% being prosecuted. However, the fines and prison sentences issued were much lower than the maximum available, and the highest sentence was for firearms possession and not illegal activities towards wildlife. Our site-based study demonstrates what can be achieved, but also identifies areas for strengthening the sub-national and national law enforcement response to an escalating tiger poaching trend.

Poaching of tigers (Panthera tigris) and its prey base are considered important factors influencing wild tiger populations in India. At present, wild tigers are disappearing even from protected Tiger Reserves. Previous models, designed to understand the effect of poaching on the viability of wild tiger populations, either ignored their mating system or largely overlooked the possible effects of variation in male territory size on population persistence. We present a two-sex matrix model for the Bengal tiger in which either strict polygyny or partial polygynandry combined with either no variation, individual variation, temporal variation or both individual and temporal variations in the territory size of breeding males (i.e., harem size) occur. We parameterize our model using demographic rates based on extensive field data on tigers. We use our model to simulate four different poaching scenarios in the tiger population of the Kanha landscape in India, representing a healthy habitat that can support a viable population of tigers and their prey: (1) poaching-free environment, (2) annual poaching of two tigers, (3) annual poaching of four tigers, and (4) annual poaching of six tigers. Our results demonstrate that tiger populations in healthy habitats such as the Kanha landscape are very sensitive to unnatural additive or partially additive mortality factors. When we assume equal poaching probability among breeders and transients combined with strict polygyny, extinction probability increases from 2.2% chance of extinction under poaching of two tigers, to 62.6% chance of extinction under poaching of four tigers annually. When six tigers are being poached annually, in almost all cases the entire population goes extinct in 21.5 years. Similar results are also evident when relaxing the assumption of either equal poaching probability among breeders and transients, strict polygyny, or both. Introducing individual variation (within generations) in the territory size of breeding males (i.e., harem size) has only a minor effect on the results. However, when either temporal variation (between generations) or both individual and temporal variations in the territory size of breeding males are being introduced the extinction risk of the tiger population increases dramatically. Our results indicate that although female tigers are the limiting factor in sustaining the tiger populations in a given area, males also have a significant role in determining the ability of such populations to persist for a long period of time.

Where hunting pressure is high, anti-poaching efforts are often crucial for protecting native wildlife populations in nature reserves. However, many reserves suffer from inadequate support and provisioning of staff, especially in developing nations. In Pakke Tiger Reserve in northeastern India, we found that malarial infection is a serious hindrance for front-line patrolling staff that limits the time they can spend in the field. We assessed the consequences of malaria both for local people and park staff in the general region and its indirect effects on wildlife protection. To accomplish this we compiled data from annual epidemiological records of malaria, the number of malaria cases and associated mortality, financial costs, and loss of time spent patrolling. Over a 4-year period (2006–2009), the majority (71%) of forest department staff in Pakke Tiger Reserve suffered from malaria. Malaria treatments cost park managers nearly 3% of their total budget and caused a net loss of 44,160 man hours of anti-poaching effort. The government forest and health departments involved in the employment and health of park staff have separate missions and responsibilities, yet our findings show that a multi-disciplinary approach to conservation is essential to avoid overall systemic failure.

In 1999, the Russian Federation created a Tiger Response Team (TRT) to investigate and intervene in human–tiger conflicts. We examined data collected on human-Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) conflicts from January 2000 through February 2009 to: (1) summarize and characterize human–tiger conflicts in the area, (2) examine causes of human–tiger conflicts, and (3) attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the TRT. The team investigated 202 conflicts. Both attacks on humans and depredations were greatest in winter (X2 = 9, df = 3, P = 0.03 and X2 = 64, df = 3, P < 0.001, respectively). Tiger depredation on domestic animals was the most common type of conflict reported (57%), followed by tigers near human habitations (22%), miscellaneous conflicts (12%), and attacks on humans (9%). Dogs were killed more commonly than other domestic animals (63% of 254 animals), likely because livestock were well managed. Nineteen attacks on humans were recorded resulting in 11 injuries and 2 deaths. Nearly four tigers per year (n = 32 tigers) died, were killed, or were removed from the wild, and all but 1 of 20 tigers killed or removed from the wild by the TRT were considered unfit to survive in the wild. Attacks on humans (n = 19) were most often (77%) by wounded tigers (80% of injuries were human-caused) and commonly provoked (47% of attacks). The effectiveness of interventions focused on reducing depredation on domestic animals was unclear, but data suggested that removal of injured and other unhealthy tigers from the wild by the Tiger Response Team resulted in fewer human deaths. Our recommendations include that the TRT continues to work to reduce conflict by rapidly removing debilitated tigers from the wild, explores different methods and technologies for reducing depredation on domestic animals, and increases their efforts to maintain tigers in the wild through telemetry monitoring, translocation, and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs. Further, standardized data should be collected to evaluate all interventions, with information from evaluation guiding an adaptive management component of their human–tiger conflict mitigation activities. This process should occur across tiger landscapes in Asia to allow rapid assessment of interventions.