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We use the phylogenetically based statistical method of independent contrasts to reanalyze the Wolf et al., 1996 translocation data set for 181 programs involving 17 mammalian and 28 avian species. Although still novel in conservation and wildlife biology, the incorporation of phylogenetic information into analyses of interspecific comparative data is widely accepted and routinely used in several fields. To facilitate application of independent contrasts, we converted the dichotomous (success/failure) dependent variable ( Wolf et al., 1996 , Griffith et al., 1989 . Translocations as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245, 477–480) into a more descriptive, continuous variable with the incorporation of persistence of the translocated population beyond the last release year, relative to the species' longevity. For comparison, we present three models: nonphylogenetic multiple logistic regression with the dichotomous dependent variable (the method used by Wolf et al. 1996 and Griffith et al. 1989 ), nonphylogenetic multiple regression with the continuous dependent variable, and multiple regression using phylogenetically independent contrasts with the continuous dependent variable. Results of the phylogenetically based multiple regression analysis indicate statistical significance of three independent variables: habitat quality of the release area, range of the release site relative to the historical distribution of the translocated species, and number of individuals released. Evidence that omnivorous species are more successful than either herbivores or carnivores is also presented. The results of our reanalysis support several of the more important conclusions of the Wolf et al. (1996) and Griffith et al. (1989) studies and increase our confidence that the foregoing variables should be considered carefully when designing a translocation program. However, the phylogenetically based analysis does not support either the Wolf et al. (1996) or Griffith et al. (1989) findings with respect to the statistical significance of taxonomic class (bird vs mammal) and status (game vs threatened, endangered, or sensitive), or the Griffith et al. (1989) findings with respect to the significance of reproductive potential of the species and program length.

Translocations of rare and endangered species face significant valuational and organizational challenges; however, these dimensions are rarely discussed in the translocation literature. We employed a 98 question sample mail survey to assess these variables and received 131 responses from 110 individuals in 10 nations. In contrast to the literature which suggests that most translocations fail, a large proportion of the programs surveyed were perceived as being successful and most respondents identified relatively few valuational or organizational problems or difficulties in their translocation programs. While perceived local support was correlated with perceived translocation success, the presence of public relations/education programs was not. Therefore, simply having a public relations/education program is no guarantee that public support will increase or that a translocation will be more successful. Organizationally, translocations which established special groups or teams were perceived as increasing innovation, but not in improving program organization, nor decreasing conflict. Further, the presence of special groups or teams was not correlated with translocation success. Finally, translocations with the objective of augmenting populations were perceived to suffer from more problems, including greater local opposition, poorer public understanding, less money, and poorer leadership, than were translocations aimed at establishing or re-establishing populations. The results illustrated the difficulty of analyzing valuational and organizational aspects of conservation programs using questionnaires.