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The future of the critically endangered Amur leopard ( Panthera pardus orientalis ) is at a crucial point, and effective conservation strategies implemented within its primary historical range in Northeast China may determine the fate of this species. However, when a conservation plan was first developed for the species, scarce information on the leopards' status existed. To illustrate regional conservation challenges, we focused on the Hunchun Nature Reserve and the surrounding area along the China-Russia border, a potential stronghold for Amur leopard conservation. We conducted large-scale data analysis with a field camera-trapping network to present the first population estimates for this species using a spatially explicit capture–recapture approach. We then used a zero-inflated regression model to analyze the relationship of leopards with major prey species and anthropogenic disturbances. Our results indicate that leopards are returning to China, but most of them are part of a “border population” or are transient; their numbers are far too few to establish a healthy population. The spatial counts of leopards were noticeably high in areas with high prey richness and areas far from settlements and roads. Areas with few prey species and high human and cattle use exhibited a greater probability of “excess absences” of leopards. Mitigating human disturbances by progressively minimizing cattle and human impacts on the forest should be pursued along with habitat expansion for large ungulates, whose presence is essential for leopard occupancy. This study provides crucial information to support Chinese government recovery efforts and for refining conservation practices in human-dominated landscapes to ensure the long-term survival of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Amur leopard ( Panthera pardus orientalis ) is highly elusive, rare species, critically threatened with extinction worldwide. In this study, we conducted camera-trap surveys of an Amur leopard population in Jilin Province, northeast China. We estimated population abundance and density distribution, and explored the effects of prey population densities and biomass of prey, habitat and anthropogenic factors on the spatial distribution of Amur leopard density. Our results suggested that Amur leopard density was 0.62 individuals/100 km 2 and 16.58 individuals might live within the study area. The spatial distribution of Amur leopard density exhibited different responses to the population densities of different prey species. We found that two ecological thresholds existed in maximum responses of Amur leopard distribution to elevation and prey biomass. Vegetation and anthropogenic factors also showed significant effects on leopard population distribution. In general, there was a combination of habitat factors including, not only prey assembly and biomass, but also vegetation, anthropogenic and geographical factors driving the spatial distribution of Amur leopard population. These insights informed us that comprehensive adaptive landscape and prey conservation strategies should be conducted for saving this critically endangered predator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]