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Abstract: Despite their high diversity and importance for humankind, invertebrates are often neglected in biodiversity conservation policies. We identify seven impediments to their effective protection: (1) invertebrates and their ecological services are mostly unknown to the general public (the public dilemma); (2) policymakers and stakeholders are mostly unaware of invertebrate conservation problems (the political dilemma); (3) basic science on invertebrates is scarce and underfunded (the scientific dilemma); (4) most species are undescribed (the Linnean shortfall); (5) the distribution of described species is mostly unknown (the Wallacean shortfall); (6) the abundance of species and their changes in space and time are unknown (the Prestonian shortfall); (7) species ways of life and sensitivities to habitat change are largely unknown (the Hutchinsonian shortfall). Numerous recent developments in taxonomy, inventorying, monitoring, data compilation, statistical analysis and science communication facilitate overcoming these impediments in both policy and practice. We suggest as possible solutions for the public dilemma: better public information and marketing. For the political dilemma: red-listing, legal priority listing and inclusion in environmental impact assessment studies. For the scientific dilemma: parataxonomy, citizen science programs and biodiversity informatics. For the Linnean shortfall: biodiversity surrogacy, increased support for taxonomy and advances in taxonomic publications. For the Wallacean shortfall: funding of inventories, compilation of data in public repositories and species distribution modeling. For the Prestonian shortfall: standardized protocols for inventorying and monitoring, widespread use of analogous protocols and increased support for natural history collections. For the Hutchinsonian shortfall: identifying good indicator taxa and studying extinction rates by indirect evidence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Subterranean ecosystems host unique biodiversity and deliver important services to humans. Yet, available data for subterranean ecosystems are limited in space and/or taxonomic scope and global monitoring programs are absent, preventing practitioners to develop effective conservation and management strategies. Expert opinion may help overcome some of these knowledge gaps. We surveyed experts on a wide variety of subterranean ecosystems and taxa around the world, aiming to quantify the importance of anthropogenic threats and conservation measures for subterranean ecosystems and to provide a roadmap on how to preserve these fundamental habitats and associated species and ecosystem services. We obtained 279 responses from 155 experts in different subterranean habitats, taxa, and regions. Experts perceived surface habitat change, direct habitat destruction (e.g., pollution, damming, mining), and climate change as the most relevant threats impacting subterranean ecosystems. Legislation, land protection, and education were scored as the most effective conservation measures, whereas species-level conservation was deemed less relevant. Whenever lacking hard data, expert opinion may be an effective, largely available, yet often overlooked source of information to implement timely conservation interventions for subterranean ecosystems. The most important threats (weights, in order of importance from left to right) affecting subterranean species and ecosystems according to experts evaluation and the most effective measures (circles) that should be taken to improve their conservation status. [Display omitted] • According to experts, subterranean ecosystems are primarily impacted by climate change and surface habitat change. • Legislation, land protection, and education were scored as the most effective conservation measures. • Expert opinion may be effective in the implementation of conservation interventions for poorly known subterranean ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]