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Social media platforms have become a prominent feature in modern-day communication, allowing users to express opinion and communicate with friends and likeminded individuals. However, with this revolutionary form of communication comes risks of exploitation and utilisation of these platforms for potentially illegal and harmful means. This article aims to explore the community guidelines and policies of prominent social media sites regarding extremist material, comparing the platform's policies with the user experiences. To measure social media user experience and user exposure to extremist material, this article pilots the use of a new scale: The Online Extremism Exposure Scale (OECE), which measures both the user's exposure to extremist communication and hate speech online. Users reported varied levels of exposure to both hate speech and extremist communication, with. the results indicating that users in the sample are being exposed to extremist material approximately 48.44% of the time they spend on social media daily. The results of this pilot study highlight potential failings by prominent social media platforms in their efforts to reduce users being exposed to extremist material. Limitations, future research, and implications are discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contemporary research has highlighted the steady rise of individuals becoming radicalised via exposure to extremist discussion on the internet, with the ease of communication with other users that the internet provides playing a major role in the radicalisation process of these individuals. The aim of the present systematic review was to explore recent research into the utilisation of language in extremist cyberspaces and how it may influence the radicalisation process. The findings suggest that there are five prominent linguistical behaviours adopted by extremists online: Algorithmic, Conflict, Hate, Positive, and Recruitment. The results demonstrate that the main purpose of extremist language online is to shape the perceptions of users to see their associated group in positive regard, while simultaneously negatively framing outgroup opposition. This is then followed by encouraging conflict against the promoted ideologies' perceived enemies. Limitations, future research, and implications are discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts to profile behavioural factors of lone actor terrorists have resulted in inconclusive data arguing that the wide range of individual characteristics makes it difficult to categorise lone actor terrorists. Instead, research should investigate the methods used by lone actor terrorists such as the release of a manifesto. The present study used a mixed methods approach to analyse manifestos created by lone actor terrorists (n = 19). Smallest Space Analysis of the language variables within lone actor terrorist manifestos was used to identify three language typologies: Instigator, Planner, and Conspiracy typologies. Findings indicate that 89% of the case studies reviewed were able to be categorised into a typology based on the language used. Further analysis identified key language variables that can be found within the manifestos in each typology combined with behavioural factors to develop a language profile of each typology. Applications of the research are also discussed as well as limitations and future areas of research development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]