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A large body of research has reported a positive relation between participation in extracurricular activities (ECAs) and improved academic performance, social competence, and school engagement. This study explored the relation between ECA, social competence, and school engagement for students with and at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Specifically, the study addressed three research questions: (a) Is there a relation between participation in ECA and high school students with EBD’s social competence and school engagement? (b) Is the relation moderated by EBD status, race, gender, or special education status? And, (c) is there a direct link between participation in ECA and students’ social competence and school engagement for youth with EBD? Eighty students with EBD and 21 typically developing students were included based on their participation in a larger study examining interventions for high school students with EBD. Participants were administered a battery of assessments at the end of the school year measuring ECA participation, social competence, and school engagement. We used regression and instrumental variable analyses to address the research questions. Results indicated statistically significant, positive relations between participation in ECA, social competence, and school engagement. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Latinx population is the largest group of racially and ethnically diverse students in the United States. Although disproportionality in school discipline has been documented for Latinx students, findings related to such disparities have been inconsistent. We examined disciplinary exclusion practices involving students with and without disabilities who are Latinx across the United States using risk ratios (RR) and weighted mixed-effect models. We leveraged data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) data set for the 2015 to 2016 academic school year, which included data from more than 94,000 schools. The CRDC is collected by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights every 2 years. All U.S. public schools are required to submit data to the CRDC. Results suggest that Latinx students with and without disabilities were statistically significantly more likely to receive exclusionary discipline than White students, but less likely than Black students. Implications for research and practice are provided.

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a multitiered system of support for behavior used in many schools across the world. Researchers have begun adapting and evaluating Tier 1 of PBIS for students placed in alternative education (AE) settings. The purpose of this review is to synthesize these evaluations. We systematically searched two electronic databases to find potential studies of Tier 1 PBIS in AE settings. We screened 47 full texts, 19 of which met all inclusion criteria. Most studies (16 of 19, 84%) evaluated student behavioral outcomes, while seven studies (37%) evaluated academic outcomes alone or in addition to behavioral measures. Overall, restraints and seclusions generally decreased following Tier 1 implementation, but behavioral incident changes were variable and academic outcomes only improved for students enrolled continuously throughout the studies. The findings of this review support the need for continued evaluations of Tier 1 in AE settings using more rigorous methodologies and metrics that account for rolling admissions. The observed reductions in restraints and seclusions are promising for students and practitioners given the poor outcomes associated with these consequences.

Disciplinary exclusions, particularly out-of-school suspension and expulsions, are a pressing concern for schools, as research demonstrates that they are associated with myriad deleterious outcomes such as increased risk for poor academic achievement, school dropout, and contact with juvenile justice. Research suggests that School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS), a prevention and intervention framework for addressing school-based problem behavior, can have a significant and meaningful impact on reducing the likelihood of student suspensions and expulsions. In this study, we conceptually replicated a series of previous studies conducted in other states and examined the effect of universal SWPBIS on disciplinary exclusions in California. Using propensity score matching, we examine differences in suspension and expulsion rates for 98 schools implementing universal SWPBIS with fidelity and 98 comparison schools not implementing SWPBIS. Results suggest that schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity have significantly fewer suspensions. No effects were found for expulsions. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Active supervision—defined as circulating, scanning, interacting with students, and reinforcing demonstrations of expected academic and social behaviors by a teacher or other staff member—is often considered a component of safe and secure schools. Yet, the evidence base supporting the effectiveness of active supervision has not been synthesized or evaluated for its quality. Therefore, we conducted an evidence-based review and meta-analysis of empirical research evaluating the effects of active supervision in schools. We identified 12 research studies evaluating active supervision, assessed the quality of each study, and calculated effect sizes for student behaviors, including disruptive behavior. Results from the four studies meeting data requirements for estimating standardized mean difference effect sizes suggest that, on average, active supervision reduced problem behavior by almost 2.0 standard deviation units. Only four studies met the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) design standards and the results of those were mixed, thus not meeting the WWC evidence-based criteria. Limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Bullying continues to be a major concern in U.S. schools and is the focus of myriad prevention and intervention efforts. Researchers have recently cited school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) as a prevention framework for reducing school-based bullying. Therefore, we examined the effect of universal SWPBIS implemented with fidelity on students’ self-report of bullying victimization. We used school-level propensity score matching to compare 76,248 students’ self-report of bullying victimization in 118 schools that implemented SWPBIS with fidelity and 118 matched comparison schools. Random-effects regression models found no statistically significant difference between treatment groups on students’ self-report of bullying victimization. Recommendations and limitations are discussed.

Teachers’ classroom management practices have a direct impact on their students’ probability of success. Evidence-based classroom management practices include (a) active instruction and supervision of students (i.e., teaching), (b) opportunities for students to respond, and (c) feedback to students. In this study, we examined the degree to which teachers implemented evidence-based classroom management practices and whether there was a relationship between use of those teacher behaviors and students’ time engaged in instruction and rate of disruptions. Using latent class analysis, we identified four groups of teachers from 1,242 teacher–student dyads in 65 elementary schools, with one group of teachers demonstrating very low rates of classroom management practices. We then modeled the predictive relationship of being in classrooms with low rates of classroom management practices and student engagement and disruptive behavior within a multilevel framework. Results indicate that students in classrooms with low rates of classroom management practices were statistically significantly less engaged in instruction, whereas no differences in disruptions were found. The results are discussed within the context of prior research, students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorders, and study limitations.

Teachers of students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) are less experienced and more likely to have emergency certification than teachers of students with other disabilities. Yet, to date, research has not examined the relation between the academic achievement of students with EBD and characteristics associated with highly qualified teachers (teachers’ education level, certification status, and years of experience). Using a nationally representative longitudinal data set of students with disabilities, this study examined the relation between teacher characteristics and the academic achievement of students with EBD. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the study found low academic achievement for students with EBD, null effects for change in achievement across time, and null effects for the relation between (a) teachers’ educational level, certification status, and years of experience and (b) student academic achievement. Results indicate further research is needed to examine whether and how teacher characteristics may impact the academic achievement of students with EBD.

Given the increased interest and implementation of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) systems in schools in the United States, practitioners and researchers have become interested in how to improve implementation with students and staff from a wide range of cultural backgrounds. Fallon, O'Keeffe, and Sugai (2012) reviewed the literature on behavior supports and culture and developed a list of recommended practices. To collect information on the perceived acceptability, feasibility, and efficacy of these practices, as well as accessibility to professional development on specific practices, we surveyed school staff members involved in SWPBS implementation across the country. Respondents (n = 330) indicated generally high agreement with the acceptability, feasibility, efficacy, and accessibility of training of culturally and contextually relevant SWPBS recommendations. Variations in these responses are discussed, and recommendations for research and practice are presented.

Students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities (E/BD), including students with emotional disturbance and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, receiving special education services perform significantly worse on academic performance measures than same age peers. Researchers have focused on reading and math performance while less is known about the writing performance of students with E/BD. We examined the writing performance of students with E/BD and compared their writing performance with that of students without disabilities. In addition, we examined the mediating effect of reading performance on differential writing performance for students with E/BD and typical peers. A sample of 114 students with E/BD was compared with both a full sample of 3,187 typical students and 114 students matched with the E/BD students using propensity score matching. Students were compared on their writing and reading performance on the Connecticut State Mastery Test. Results indicate that students with E/BD perform significantly worse than propensity score-matched peers in writing. Mediation analyses indicate that reading performance accounts for ~60% of the total variance of writing performance for students with E/BD. Implications and future directions for researchers are discussed.

Reliability of direct observation outcomes ensures the results are consistent, dependable, and trustworthy. Typically, reliability of direct observation measurement approaches is assessed using interobserver agreement (IOA) and the calculation of observer agreement (e.g., percentage of agreement). However, IOA does not address intraobserver agreement, or the withinrater agreement, analogues to internal consistency. One approach to assess both IOA and intraobserver agreement is generalizability theory. This paper describes generalizability theory and provides a case study example of using generalizability theory with direct observation measures in emotional and/or behavioral disorders research.

* Evidence of functional and causal relationships between independent and dependent variables is contingent upon accurate, valid, and reliable measurement (Kazdin, 2011; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Standards for reliability and validity are well established in education (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999), but the application of many of those standards to direct observation is limited (Hintze, 2005), perhaps for good reason (Baer, Harrison, Fradenburg, Peterson, & Milla, 2005). As an example of differences in psychometric criteria between direct observation and other generalized measurement approaches (e.g., rating scales, knowledge tests), review the special education quality indicators for single-subject design research, which is based in principles of applied behavior analysis and relies on systematic direct observation (Horner et al., 2005), and group experimental and quasiexperimental design research (Gersten, Baker, Haager, & Graves, 2005). Horner and colleagues indicate that dependent variables must be operationally defined and assessed for consistency using interobserver agreement, while Gersten and colleagues indicate that dependent variables must have evidence of internal consistency and concurrent validity, constructs rarely addressed in direct observation studies.The validity and reliability of scores resulting from either direct observation or other measurement approaches are necessary requirements of "good" science regardless of experimental design (i.e., single-subject, group experimental). A mismatch between established professional standards of generalized outcomes and direct observation, for example the within-subject repeated single observation scores that violate assumptions of traditional psychometric methods (e.g., assumption of independence inherent in many inferential approaches), is not license to apply direct observation without evidence of accuracy, reliability, and validity. As a remedy, the field of applied behavior analysis established criteria for determining reliability and validity of direct observation methods decades ago, namely interobserver agreement, transparent procedural descriptions, face validity based on complete reporting of operational definitions, and social validity of target behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2008; Kazdin, 2011), and the field continues to refine and advance those methods (e.g., Wirth, Slaven, & Taylor, 2014). These criteria are accepted across disciplines and meet federal requirements of high quality research (e.g., Kratochwill et al., 2010), yet challenges remain with direct observation approaches in natural settings, particularly classrooms, including item scaling, observation procedures, and instrumentation (Horovitz & Matson, 2012; McComas, Vollmer, & Kennedy, 2009). To date, little has been written about these concerns or the advances that have been made addressing them in direct observation approaches in research supporting the needs of students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) in schools and classrooms.This special issue of Behavioral Disorders is dedicated to addressing challenges and concerns related to direct observation measurement systems in school and classroom settings supporting the needs of students with EBD and describing advances in validity and reliability of direct observation results. The papers herein have been selected as means of highlighting three basic goals for this issue. The initial goal is to present an overview of basic issues related to direct observations in natural settings with students with or at risk for EBD and to provide general recommended considerations for reliable, valid, and generalizaba outcomes. The second goal is to provide a summation of the work that has been done in this area and to draw conclusions as to what we know and where research needs to go. …

* Disproportionality of English learners in special education has been a longstanding (Dunn, 1968) and ongoing (Ford, 2012) concern for almost half a century. The Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (Skiba, Albrecht, & Losen, 2012) noted that, "despite court challenges, abundant research, and policy initiatives, racial and ethnic disproportionality [including English learners] persists as a critical and unresolved problem in the field" (p. 2). The topic has played a large role in the history of behavior disorders; however, the focus has often been on disproportionate representation of African Americans (Skiba, PoloniStaudinger, Callini, Simmons, & Feggins-Azziz, 2006).In contrast, a paucity of research has specifically examined disproportionality of English learners with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD; Artiles, Bal, Trent, & Thorius, 2012). Although English learners currently represent approximately 21% of all students in U.S. schools (Aud et al., 2010), little is known about their representation in the EBD category. Donovan and Cross (2002) reported that English learners were generally underrepresented in the EBD category based on their synthesis of research conducted in the last century (prior to the year 2001). However, no study has examined patterns in the current century. To address this gap, we examined representation statistics of English learners with EBD in the post-No Child Left Behind (NCLB) education era (2002 to the present) to (a) identify the extent of disproportionality in the EBD category; (b) determine whether disproportionality was variable across educational contexts, be they individual schools, school districts, or state; and (c) compare the results for students with EBD with those for students with learning disabilities (LD).Disproportionality in Special EducationDisproportionality refers to "the extent to which membership in a given group affects the probability of being placed in a specific disability category" (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999, p. 198). For example, we would say that representation of English learners is disproportionately high if the probability of English learners being identified as having a LD is significantly greater than the expected probability given census statistics. Overall, findings from research examining disproportionality for culturally diverse students, including English learners, provide mixed signals and inconsistent findings. The picture is particularly murky when one combines results across many decades and many categories of disability and varying ethnic groups. Then, the picture appears mixed and often contradictory (Chinn & Hughes, 1987; Hopstock & Stephenson, 2003; Hosp & Reschly, 2003; Oswald et al., 1999; Sullivan, 2011).Two National Research Council (NRC) reports on disproportionality, separated by two decades (Donovan & Cross, 2002; Heller, Holtzman, & Messick, 1982), found some evidence of overrepresentation of both culturally diverse and English learners in special education. Although they differed in their conclusions and inferences drawn from the data, both expert syntheses concluded that overrepresentation was not consistent across all disability categories or ethnic minorities. Furthermore, patterns of disproportionality appeared mediated by educational context (school, district, state) in some unspecified fashion.Early litigation (Larry P v. Riles 1972/1974/ 1979/1984) cited test bias against English learners as a possible cause of disproportionality in special education. Later research focused on professional practices, including teacher bias (Riccio, Ochoa, Garza, & Nero, 2003) and all aspects of the assessment process (Loe & Miranda, 2002) as possible causes. Others contend that disproportionality may be a function of poverty, not just English learner status (Hosp & Reschly, 2003; MacMillan & Reschly, 1998; Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Nguyen, 2001 ). …

Of the myriad practices currently utilized for students with disabilities, particularly students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorder (EBD), functional behavior assessment (FBA) is a practice with an emerging solid research base. However, the FBA research base relies on single-subject design (SSD) and synthesis has relied on literature review or analyses using nonparametric effect size calculations. This study was designed to examine the omnibus effect that FBA-based interventions have on problem behaviors for students with or at risk for EBD in schools using a hierarchical linear modeling meta-analytic approach to SSD synthesis. Based on a sample of 69 FBA studies, 146 subjects, and 206 outcome graphs, results indicated that, overall, FBA-based interventions reduced problem behavior by an average of 70.5% and that the procedure was effective across all student characteristics. Differences of effectiveness were evident between functional analysis and descriptive assessment procedures. Findings of this study suggest that FBA-based interventions for students with or at risk for EBD are an effective approach for the reduction of problem behaviors.

Despite a growing body of evidence demonstrating the value of Tier 1 and Tier 3 interventions, significantly less is known about Tier 2 level treatments when they are added within the context of a tiered continuum of support. The purpose of this article is to systematically review the existing research base for Tier 2 small group intervention studies conducted within a tiered prevention framework. Results indicated that few studies documented fidelity of Tier 7 implementation prior to the addition of Tier 2 interventions. Methods for identifying students to receive Tier 2 supports varied across investigations, but included teacher nomination, use of student data, and/or screening score results. More than half of the reviewed studies demonstrated use of the Behavior Intervention Program: Check-in/Check-out (BEP/CICO), although social skill instructional groups and academic instructional groups were also employed as Tier 2 interventions. Overall, positive results for reducing problem behavior were reported. In addition, school-based personnel implemented the Tier 2 intervention in nearly half of the investigations. Among studies that reported measures of social validity teacher and student perceptions of the treatments were largely positive. Implications for future research are evaluated using criteria from the Society for Prevention Research (Flay et al., 2005).

* Students with emotional or behavior disorders (LVBD) present teachers, administrators, policymakers, and researchers with a diverse range of challenges necessitating early and effective intervention practices. Although a lofty goal, students with E/BD need and deserve our help. These students have dismal short- and long-term outcomes, including placement in more restricted instructional environments, limited access to highly qualified teachers, increased rates of suspension and expulsion, and low rates of postschool employment (Bradley, Doolittle, & Bartolotta, 2008; Bradley, Henderson, & Monfore, 2004; Henderson, Klein, Gonzalez, & Bradley, 2005; Wagner, Kutash, Duchnowski, Epstein, & Sumi, 2005). Perhaps most troubling, estimates suggest that approximately 55% of students with E/BD drop out of school, highlighting the gravity of the current state of affairs (Bradley et al., 2008).Even more disconcerting is the decline in outcomes for students with E/BD since the late 1980s. A study by Wagner and colleagues (1992), reporting on the first National Longitudinal Transition Survey, found that when compared among other high-incidence disabilities, the long-term outcomes for students with E/BD were "particularly troubling" (p. 11). In light of the limited outcome improvements for students with E/BD over the past 20 years, we contend that the current state of affairs is particularly troubling. The findings of recent national studies of students with E/BD provoke broader questions about how to remedy the situation and provide these students with practices to best impact outcomes.Intervention and prevention research and practice for students with FVBD has a long and storied history (Kauffman & Landrum, 2005). Even before the passage of P.L 94-142 in 1975, programs were designed specifically to address behavioral problems in children and youth. Since 1975, an immense body of research has evolved across diverse areas of intervention, including academic skills, social skills, positive behavior interventions and supports, and self-determination, to name a few. Intervention and prevention efforts have been further compounded by the advent of the evidence-based practice movement (Walker, 2004), articulating a need for scientifically supported practices, currently defined by the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) as evidence from predominantly random clinical trials (RCTs; WWC, 2008). A comprehensive elaboration on the impact of the evidencebased practice movement on the E/BD field is beyond the scope of this article, but the key point is that the WWCs RCT criterion relegates much of the research published in the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders flagship journal Behavioral Disorders as below evidential standards (see Gage, Lewis, & Adamson, this volume).Not only have students with E/BD's shortand long-term outcomes remained unchanged and abysmal since the 1980s but also has the validity and usability of the field's scientific evidence come under attack due to limited RCT studies. This begs the question, where do we go from here? As future leaders in the field of E/BD, we face the task of improving the day-to-day realties of students with E/BD and the methodological concerns outlined previously. Yet, as Antonio eloquently responded to Sebastian in The Tempest, "What's past is prologue"; what has transpired has set the stage for what is to come. We contend that the answer as to how we improve outcomes is functionally tied to how we improve our practices and programs for students with E/BD and that the answer has been around for almost 20 years.This article provides an historical look at how programs and practices have been evaluated since 1964, leading to a codified, although not universally recognized, set of recommendations for evaluating best practices for students with E/BD set out by The Peacock Hill Working Group (1991). We contend that, in addition to the programmatic features of best practice, the addition of the quality indicators and standards for research in special education (Brantlinger, Jimenez, Klingner, Pugach, & Richardson, 2005; Gersten et al. …

With this issue, the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders marks 35 years of publishing Behavioral Disorders. The journal has chronicled an historic time in the field of emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) with its first volume appearing around the passage of P.L. 94-142 and maturing into the lead journal in the field representing thousands of dedicated educators, related professionals, advocates, and children and youth with EBD and their families. This article provides a review and summary of all previous issue of Behavioral Disorders, volume 1(1) to 34(4), focusing on key trends of what has been published over the past 3½ decades. Implications for the journal and EBD field are discussed throughout.