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At present, COVID-19 is attracting people's attention worldwide. The rapid spread of the epidemic has had a very large impact on the education sector. Many countries have organized students to engage in online learning and study at home. As a country was seriously affected in the early stage of the epidemic, after a period of hard work, China has developed nationwide online education. Compared with that in many developed countries, the emergence of information technology in China did not occur early. However, the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 forced Chinese schools to carry out large-scale online teaching. Based on the theoretical framework of the interaction between online education policy and public response, this paper combs the change trend of online education policy focus in China in recent 20 years and the change of public response direction in microblog hot search comments after the online education policy was introduced during the epidemic period through a variety of text statistical analysis methods, and discusses the interaction between social public response and online education policy. This paper explains the reasons for China's successful implementation of nationwide online education in primary and secondary schools in early 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modern history of Nepal started after the Kingdom of Nepal was formed during the 1760s through a series of military battles, which is now known as a national unification campaign, led by Prithvi Narayan Shah. The history of mass education, however, started during the 1950s when a political uprising overthrew autocratic Rana regime that had ruled the country for more than a century. This paper aims to explore Nepal's educational history by analysing key educational policy documents produced by the Government of Nepal as well as its major donor the World Bank from 1950 to 2020. The paper uses international political economy as a theoretical framework and critical policy sociology as a methodological approach. The key argument of the paper is that, since some of the problematic assumptions of modernism, nationalism, and globalism have guided Nepal's policy agendas, its education system has not addressed multifarious challenges faced by its citizens. The theoretical and methodological approaches taken for exploring the interconnections between education, economy, and politics will be helpful for future researchers to understand the significance of education not only for economic development but also for the institutionalization of democracy in both developed and developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marketization is the development of quasi-markets on the systemic level, which promote choice, competition, accountability, and devolution in public schooling. Marketing is a strategy that individual school leaders employ to respond to these logics. This paper argues that education marketization has led to an increase in school-based marketing within the Australian public school system. The eight public school principals we report on here, perceived marketing as a key technique in shaping school choice but paradoxically, felt that they shouldn't have to market to prospective families. In addition, some participants no longer felt like they operated as public schools, but rather, existed somewhere in the "grey zone" between public and private. We use Bateson's concept of the double bind to argue that marketization is creating a system of performative pressures for public school principals that contradict with their ethical values and beliefs. This double bind is not representative of a simple contradiction of individual conflict, but of school leaders caught up in an ongoing system of marketization that produces conflicting definitions of "publicness" and understanding of what public schools are and ought to be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the representation of information literacy and media literacy in the Singapore education discourse as part of its twenty-first century competencies framework. Through examining the conceptual definitions, purposes/aims, and means of these two significant twenty-first century competencies in the global context and the Singapore education policy, the authors argue that despite both information literacy and media literacy have been widely recognized as crucial skills in the knowledge-based economy, they are perceived as separate concepts, given differentiated emphasis, and implemented using similar approaches by various governmental and educational agencies in Singapore. To facilitate the acquisition of these critical competencies, this paper argues that an overarching framework featuring the seamless integration of information and media literacy in school curricula and public education needs to be in place to clarify conceptual concerns and guide its practical implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1990s, public schooling in Australia has been shaped by quasi-marketization that has incentivized competition between schools and installed a business logic to school governance. In this paper we argue that it is timely to consider how teachers and school leaders are understanding and responding to the affordances and challenges of this new "work order". We define this new work order as the languages and practices that are shaping public schooling, particularly in regards to increasing commercialization caused by (and contributing to) the quasi-marketization of schooling. The data gathered for this paper comes from a survey of public school educators who were members of the Australian Education Union (AEU). Our interest is in the perceptions that public school educators had of commercialization in their school system. We show that while many teachers express concerns with the logic behind much education policy, they are far from accepting the new work order. In fact, there was a strong sense of an ethical clash between the managerial nature of much policy and bureaucracy, and strongly held beliefs that public education is justified as a democratic good. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Thinking School, Learning Nation" national policy agenda set forth in 1997 has been considered a watershed moment in the history of Singapore education as well as the nation. It has brought about a raft of new educations reforms that are both comprehensive and intensive in nature. It has also brought about a succeeding education policy initiative coined as "Teach Less, Learn More". This education policy initiative further strengthens, widens and deepens the spirit of the "Thinking School, Learning Nation" movement, albeit confined to the Singapore education context. In education, both these gargantuan policy initiatives have immense impact on education and educators likewise. This paper seeks to bring to light these two policy initiatives in terms of its influence on teacher professional learning, albeit focusing on the developments of professional learning communities. The critical discussions and propositions laid forth in this paper seek to engage readers to reflect deeper on how the policy intent and spirit of "Thinking Schools, Learning Nation" can be further fulfilled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term Professional Development (PD) was first introduced to English teachers in China in the Revised Curriculum Standards (RCS). For PD to be effective, the teachers and policymakers involved in its implementation need to have a common understanding of its scope and purposes, but little is known about how English teachers in China understand the notion of PD. This study examined teachers' understandings of the elements of PD identified in the RCS using a questionnaire with 227 teachers and interviews with 18 teachers. This paper argues that the aim of the RCS is to bring about a very significant reform of teachers' roles in their own development, and the enactment of the curriculum; however, the teachers do not understand PD in ways that confer ownership or empower them to enact curriculum changes. This paper highlights that, from an international perspective, the development of PD for teachers must recognize teachers' existing experience of the curriculum, experience of PD and the ways they understand the goals of PD, and must promote a shared understanding of policy intentions in relation to PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buffer Schools, an emerging Thai border school policy, was first launched in 2010 to response to ASEAN initiatives. Buffer Schools aim to establish close cooperation among neighbour countries, thereby creating a sense of historical and cultural connection that can nurture unity and confraternity in the region. This paper examines the effectiveness of implementing pilot school policy focusing on the Thailand-Cambodia border, which has faced several border disputes over the years. This paper analyses the challenges in achieving policy goals. The theoretical foundation is based on contemporary education policy implementation in practice and research. Therefore, the three dimensions of policy, people, and places are examined, together with the concept of border school development. This research employs a descriptive mixed-methods strategy that has gathered data from policy stakeholders by survey questionnaires, interviews and field study. The findings reveal that Buffer Schools face challenges in policy design, with the implementers, and the operating units at both state and local levels. The research also discusses the concept of Buffer Schools as it differs from previous border school policy in Thailand in which the government served as the agent of change in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to review changes in North Korea's education system during the Kim Jong-un era to determine if North Korea has focused on higher education and obtained the educational goals set in the Kim Jung-il era. To do so, this paper examines how North Korea's education laws and educational content have influenced its central educational administration system from the Kim Il-sung to the Kim Jong-un regime. This study also explores specific changes in North Korea's higher education system. For the analysis, I reviewed a variety of documents and media content, such as policies announced by the North Korean media, statute books, textbooks, magazines, and interviews with North Korean defectors regarding educational changes. Results indicate that North Korea's educational system was reformed only after the reform of its administrative system. Additionally, the results demonstrate that North Korean education has shifted from basic, theoretical education to practical education during the Kim Jong-un regime. This study concludes that higher education in North Korea will continue to be reinforced for everyone so it can build an advanced nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lifelong learning policy came and went in many countries in the last few decades. Much of the lifelong learning policy experience has been either ineffective or drifting in and out of policy discussions unnoticed. Yet, in 2015, Singapore launched a new policy initiative known as SkillsFuture, which brought lifelong learning back into mainstream policy. In this paper, we re-examine the origins of lifelong learning as a concept with a view of providing useful points of reference for policy discussion in Singapore. We employ the Delors Four Pillars of lifelong learning and data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) to make a comparison between Singapore and its international peers. We use this comparison to identify potential policy challenges that lie ahead for Singapore. We argue that the historical focus in Singapore on formal education, both pre-employment and continuing, provides a solid foundation for lifelong learning. Nevertheless, recent policy shifts have begun to bring the humanistic elements of learning – for example, living together and self-actualization – back to the front stage of policy for learning. This is where potential policy gaps may exist in Singapore, as the utilitarian emphasis has dominated for a long time. An understanding of these different elements of lifelong learning and how they are linked in Singapore’s context will be valuable for policymakers and practitioners to prepare for the challenges ahead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological changes have reshaped communication, social life as well as the conditions of work, challenging schools to foster skills and capacities that help youth to competently and confidently navigate these new socio-technological terrains as workers, citizens and private individuals. Responding to these changes, media and digital literacy have been at the centre of a global policy push to articulate a curricular plan for twenty-first century skills, resulting in numerous frameworks produced by non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations and adopted by national governments. At the same time, scholars have been critical of the overwhelmingly economic rationale behind twenty-first century competencies and of the influence of global edu-business on national education policies, calling for critical analyses that examine the local uptake of globally mobile policy initiatives. This paper investigates media and digital literacy at the nexus of global twenty-first century education initiatives and their local interpretation within Singapore’s education system, with special attention to the role of creative digital production. Drawing on a critical analysis of both international and Singapore policy, as well as empirical data on teacher and student practice, I highlight the selective process of localization and its impact on twenty-first century competencies in Singapore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there is a growing presence of trans-Pacific migrant students in the US, relatively little attention has been given to the diversity among them in terms of their everyday experiences and future educational trajectories shaped by different patterns of transnational mobilities and practices. This paper addresses the distinctive educational experiences and needs of transnational Japanese students, temporarily enrolled in US schools accompanying their parents on business appointments from transnational corporations. This institutional ethnographic study examines the strategies that these sojourner students use to negotiate the institutional demands of US high-school life and the way to promote access to tertiary education in Japan. The findings show that, although corporate transnationalism restricts Japanese sojourners' geographical mobility, they still actively construct their futures through the high-stakes strategy of graduating a year early from US high schools. I call this early graduation scheme a gambit because the sojourners sacrifice beneficial opportunities and even risk their graduation itself in the hope of securing a positional advantage upon their return to their home country. The early graduation gambit is analysed through a lens of transnationalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although English is only an extra-curricular subject at primary level in Indonesia, expectations over the improved quality of the teachers are exceptionally high . This is the case in the past few years in which the low proficiency of primary English teachers and their lack of teaching competencies have repeatedly been pointed out as major constraints. Unfortunately, it remains unclear whether this problem is attributed to the delivery of pre-service education in preparing primary school English teachers. This paper gathered data from teachers, language teacher educators, primary school principals, members of educational boards, and educational consultants. The data were analysed using Grounded Theory in order to examine the adequacy of pre-service education in Indonesia to prepare primary school English teachers as well as factors that contribute to its efficacy or lack thereof. The findings of the study demonstrate the need for specific preparation for primary school English teachers as well as further training for teacher educators. This present study is highly relevant to Indonesia and other Asian countries where teacher efficacy is a major concern. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article aims to review and comment on the articles in this Special Issue and suggest directions for Singaporean evaluators to consider in the future. Based on the review, we found education evaluators in Singapore are familiar with up-to-date evaluation theories and approaches and successfully apply them. We also found that a substantial proportion of these articles (six out of nine) focused on evaluation research. Only three of them related to conventional program evaluation. We suggest addressing this imbalance in the future. This article suggests several cutting-edge areas for Singaporean evaluators to consider in the future. Singapore has many innovative social and educational programs. Singaporean evaluators could advantage of these programs to address cutting-edge issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, I evaluate the theory that leadership ought to be "paradoxical", meaning that leaders should embrace contradictions and incoherent norms. The idea of a paradoxical practice is trending in both education leadership and policy studies (as well as in business leadership studies), but in fact the literature on education (in Singapore and elsewhere) suggests that this is not helpful for arresting the terrors of performativity, and that there are examples of high performing education systems flourishing better through being consistent with core values. I detail how paradoxical leadership makes it difficult for defending ethical practice and how their rejection and shaming of the Aristotelian principle of non-contradiction risks effecting a woke culture that represses criticality. I argue that all this is part of an ongoing nominalist trend (the bifurcation between nature and thinking) in the history of ideas, only that we are at a philosophical tipping point. I explore the alternative, which takes contradictions seriously and irons out inconsistencies, and pre-empt objections internal to the Aristotelian tradition, and also offer an interpretation of James March's influential theory of leadership to show that if read carefully, the theory does not fit well with the paradoxes approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Programme evaluation has developed tremendously over the past 50 years, with a proliferation of evaluation research, an increase in the institutionalization of evaluation, and growth in the professionalization of evaluation. However, existing research and developments are still largely in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, with less from Asia. As theory building of policy and programme evaluation practices necessarily occur within specific political, economic, and cultural contexts, the applicability of Western-centric evaluation literature in Asian contexts warrants further examination. In this article, we explore the interconnections between evaluation theory, evaluation policy, and evaluation practice in the Ministry of Education Headquarters (MOE-HQ) in Singapore. We describe our theory of change of how evaluation theory influenced evaluation practice from the ground-up at the micro (individual) level, and from the top-down at the meso (organization) level. In the process, we also discuss how common challenges and tensions in evaluation (e.g., evaluation as an accountability vis-à-vis learning tool; appropriateness of randomized controlled trials vis-à-vis other approaches) acted out and were mitigated. We conclude with our learning points and implications for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For education reform to move beyond policy rhetoric and find a place in teachers' practice, the critical role of teachers must be acknowledged. Moving beyond a focus on the "what" of educational reform to the "how", this study explores the enabling conditions for implementing learner-centred education in the Maldives. Using design-based research, an interventionist methodology, the key role of teachers and their professional development needs was investigated. A pedagogical intervention was developed and studied in a Maldivian island school. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and fieldnotes to document the processes and circumstances that influenced teachers' enactment of innovative practices. The findings highlighted the importance of professional development focused on teachers' access to new knowledge and ideas, the school-based conditions necessary for transferring knowledge into practice, and the need for ongoing refinement in working towards the desired pedagogical goal. The paper concludes with three overarching design principles, a theoretical output of design-based research, intended to inform similar innovations in other relevant settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This introductory article serves as a hermeneutical tool for interpreting the subsequent articles in this special issue, which explores the nature and roles of comparative education in the 21st century within the context of a changing world order and the growing prominence of comparative education in the Asia-Pacific region. A review of the evolution of different genres of comparative educationsreveals the importance of contextual considerations as a constantritornello(a refrain or instrumental interlude) in comparative education research. Reflections on comparative education in dialectical perspectives in this article provide new impetus and enlightenment on contemporary issues in education and society. Seeing comparative education as a dialectic process enhances the openness of comparative education to challenge the status quo perception of issues, and provides a compare-and-contrast perspective to identify polemic interpretations, such as empirical epistemology which can be viewed as a subjectivity that rejects the transcendental sources of knowledge. Dynamic secularism can be a friend of, and coexist with, religion as it ironically provides more opportunities for more religions to co-exist harmoniously under secularism than many countries that adopt a national religion. The dialectics of comparative education opens up a new role for comparative education to accommodate polemic perspectives to co-exist and to recognize the equal importance of universality and particularity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examining the gap between national level minority education policies and local implementation in Japan, this paper considers this gap as a “soft middle” whereby local communities and schools have considerable leeway in how they implement policies. In particular, this paper focuses on Japan's largest minority group, theburakuminand their educational experiences. It traces the origins of educational policies targetingburakuminand how these policies were designed with this soft middle in mind. Following this, the paper considers two different localized approaches, both under policies directed at theburakuminand after the termination of such policies. It argues that schools can selectively implement policies while still fitting within the parameters of the law. Finally, it demonstrates that considering the soft middle provides for a richer, more nuanced understanding of educational systems, beyond monolithic assumptions of national systems. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper offers insights into the referencing of Singapore within the US Obama Administration educational discourse, underscoring the political-material-discursive nexus of international educational benchmarking. Using critical discourse analysis, we find that an objectified Singapore functions as a rhetorical tool of US policymaker agendas, with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s (OECD) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and other international assessments as basis for truth statements. US policy discourses on Singapore’s education system perpetuate, rather than interrogate, PISA’s questionable underlying “truths” around socio-economic development, equity, and excellence, and thus on student achievement and underachievement. Singapore’s status as an “Asian Tiger” reference society intertwines with international assessments to form part of an emerging transnational regime of truth, homogenizing what to consider as factual or important, holding sway over views of reality by obscuring other more robust data, research, and lived experiences. In the process of constructing “high performance” around the role education plays in the international economic system, the notion of “low performance” is also discursively constituted and a schemata established for the disciplining of “low performing” bodies through neoliberal policy agendas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to explore the policy implementation process regarding 2023 Education Vision, a national-based top-down policy document, in the context of Istanbul through the lived experiences of 10 local-level administrators as street-level bureaucrats. This study adopted a qualitative research approach, incorporating phenomenology as the research design. The participants of the study were determined in accordance with criterion sampling. The data was gathered via semi-structured interviews. The researchers used content analysis to analyse the data. In the analysis, researchers reached three themes, which are reflections from the field, priorities, and barriers. Firstly, the findings unveil the contentious perspectives adopted from a great variety of education stakeholders regarding the implementation of this policy document. Secondly, the views of street-level bureaucrats reveal that some areas in the relevant policy document are much more highly prioritized than others and that these priorities are embodied in practice in a variety of ways. Finally, the findings draw attention to the hindrances street-level bureaucrats face regarding the implementation of this policy document. Also, it can be suggested that designing hybrid educational policies in both top-down and bottom-up ways is fundamental for efficiency in street-level policy implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article charts the extent to which selected societies of Southeast Asia can be seen as knowledge societies. Beginning from the premise that the global world of knowledge is changing from the former bipolar model of the West and the Rest, towards a more multi-polar world in which Asia figures more prominently, the analysis proceeds to use China, the most prominent example of this shift to the East, as a benchmark for Southeast Asia. Charting China's rising knowledge profile is followed by a consideration of the notion of a knowledge society, including the work of Nico Stehr and Manuel Castells, and its transformation into the contemporary, and more instrumental, knowledge economy. The five Southeast Asian states of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam are selected for analysis, revealing both a common intent of moving towards a knowledge society (often now more commonly expressed as a knowledge economy), but rather different outcomes, and knowledge profiles. National innovation indices are compared; as are research and development (R&D) measures, including by sector, production of papers and citations, and moves to develop “World Class” universities, against a backdrop of brain drain effects, and the differential impact of corruption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The internationalization of higher education is considered to be a major policy agenda in the global knowledge society. For Japan, internationalization has been a key driver in academic and social advancement, while its traditional culture and national identity have also been retained. Recently, a series of policies have been presented by the government, university, and industry to attract more students and top calibre researchers from Asia and further afield, and to enhance exchange and collaboration, internationalization at home, and global human resource development. Concurrently, the controversial nature of internationalization has been pointed out, as well as the stagnant mobility of Japanese students and their inward-looking attitude. This paper discusses the internationalization of Japanese higher education by examining the relevant policy, practice, and perceptions of the people and institutions concerned. The major findings reveal the complexity of internationalization as a dynamic process of change, its vulnerability and marginality, and the extent of the gap between policy and practice. The author also addresses the increased relevance of the research in this field to policy-making and practice in education and its contribution to the production of new knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to critically examine the trends, issues and challenges in policy and practice of English language education in Pakistan. This is done first by historically reviewing the English language education policies since Pakistan's independence in 1947, looking particularly at policy objectives, implementation strategies and outcomes, and the rationale for policy change. Second, the practice of teaching English in varied instructional settings is described. It is found that implementation lags far behind the major policy change in 1989 for “democratising” English. Furthermore, the consequences of using English as the medium of instruction are discussed in the light of recent policy advisories about using English for teaching science and mathematics from Grade 6 onwards in all Pakistani schools. Other issues and challenges in implementing the policy of mass literacy in English are also highlighted. It is argued that while policy decisions are driven mainly by global change forces, strategic planning for implementation that is informed by local conditions and exigencies is necessary for successful policy implementation. Otherwise, recent policy changes in Pakistan may be in danger of leading to widespread illiteracy, rather than literacy, in general but particularly in English. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two nationally representative datasets, this paper examines how the imposition of a curfew on private cram schools affects the consumption of private tutoring services as well as the time use patterns of Korean high school students. To identify the impact of the curfew, this study capitalizes on inter-city/province variation in private cram school regulatory ordinances and estimates a difference-in-differences estimator between the years of 2009 and 2012. The findings indicate that the curfew was ineffective in reducing the level of household expenditure or the total number of hours spent on private tutoring. However, imposition of the curfew was found to be associated with increases in time spent on sleeping as well as in internet usage for non-academic purposes. Interestingly, changes in time use patterns were not found among students in the highest socio-economic status group indicating that the curfew policy may have certain unintended consequences. Policy implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since Joseph Nye introduced the concept of “Soft power” in his 1991 book,Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, analysts have discussed states' efforts to exercise their influence by attracting and co-opting rather than coercing or using force. This paper will examine enrolments trends in Indonesian language in Australian universities, in the context of Indonesia's public diplomacy and Australian government educational policy. Enrolment data and trend analysis updates the 2012 National Report onIndonesian in Australian Universities: Strategies for a stronger future. Then, using statistics provided by a recent Newspoll commissioned by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the article explores Australian attitudes to Indonesia in the context of Indonesia's limited linguistic “soft power”. It concludes that the fluctuations in Indonesian language learning in Australia and Australian attitudes to Indonesia generally appear more influenced by Australian government policy than any conscious efforts by Indonesia to exercise “soft power”. It concludes that it is to the advantage of both countries that Indonesian language learning be better promoted and supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parent-school engagement is widely embraced as a policy and educational ideal, yet to date there are few studies of how teacher education prepares students for this important aspect of their professional lives. In this paper, we consider findings from a recent Australian study that explored how the issue of parent-school relations is currently addressed in Australian initial teacher education programmes. The study is situated within the broader policy context of teaching standards. Our findings challenge suggestions that parent-school engagement is largely absent from pre-service programmes, and although the study recognizes gaps and discontinuities, it also identifies four key domains in which initial teacher education currently prepares students for parent engagement. We argue that students are being prepared for parent-school engagement in a variety of ways, but that there is insufficient continuity to ensure that all beginning teachers have a thorough understanding of how to work effectively with parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various papers published within the issue including on about education and caste in India and another about education policy.

This study critically examines the K-12 curriculum reform in the Philippines and suggests ways on how it can move forward. Specifically, three recent curriculum guides (i.e., science, mathematics, and English) were analysed to determine how they fit with the Education 4.0 milieu. Using a curriculum analysis matrix, the findings indicate that these curricula may require conceptual and pedagogical refinements, particularly in the area of constructive alignment, technology integration, and specificity of its components. Potential implementation challenges in terms of instructional delivery, assessment, lesson preparation, school-based initiatives, and commitment of teachers and school leaders to curriculum reform were also discussed. Recommendations for future design, implementation, and studies are offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable evidence to suggest that the human capital needs of the world city differ from what Robinson calls 'ordinary cities' or what Markusen and associates term as 'second tier cities'. This path is blazed most notably in the field of world cities and the flow of skilled labour, in the work by Sassen and with case examples (finance, law, accountancy) provided in the work by Beaverstock and his associates. This focuses on producer services and migration flows needs to be matched by an accompanying look at city-based strategies. This paper represents an attempt to provide this by providing a case history analysis of Singapore in three stages of growth - as port city, industrial city and as world city - in order to show how the evolving infrastructure associated with human capital (education, immigration and labour policies) allows human capital to be developed, attracted, harnessed, deployed, released and retained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the relationship between educational policy, equity, and national development in Nepal. It argues that current inequities in educational opportunities and outcomes are largely attributable to persistent inequities and biases in the educational policy framework. We begin by surveying the complex, multifaceted reality of educational disparity in contemporary Nepal and trace these inequalities to exclusionary practices in the policy environment that have persisted in various forms since the inception of an independent Nepali state. We then show how these educational inequities contributed to the civil conflict that engulfed Nepal from 1996 to 2006. Analysis and critique of the most recent policy trends, decentralisation and privatisation, provide insight into the future nexus of educational policy and equity in Nepal. We conclude that it is imperative for policymakers to reconceptualise the relationship between development, education, and equity at this critical juncture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accelerating global flows of people and information have formed new communities and networks across social and political borders. Higher education is one such globalised knowledge community in which new patterns of knowledge, accreditation, research alliances, and social and professional relationships are emerging. In this paper I outline the push–pull dynamics of globalisation in higher education: the co-constitutive nature of local and global interests and educational formations; disjunctive flows of capital, information, people, and knowledge; and the new politics of knowledge capital as they affect academic research and the public archive of scholarly publishing and university libraries. I close with reflections on the differential consequences of globalisation on: the role of the nation state in higher education provision and reform; the role of education in nation building and national identity politics; and the governability of a global eduscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The challenges facing the Singapore education system in the new millennium are unique and unprecedented in Asia. Demands for new skills, knowledges, and flexible competencies for globalised economies and cosmopolitan cultures will require system-wide innovation and reform. But there is a dearth of international benchmarks and prototypes for such reforms. This paper describes the current Core Research Program underway at the National Institute of Education in Singapore, a multilevel analysis of Singaporean schooling, pedagogy, youth and educational outcomes. It describes student background, performance, classroom practices, student artefacts and outcomes, and student longitudinal life pathways. The case is made that a systematic focus on teachers' and students' work in everyday classroom contexts is the necessary starting point for pedagogical innovation and change. This, it is argued, can constitute a rich multidisciplinary evidence base for educational policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work of teachers is often understood primarily in relation to student learning rather than as a form of labour for the worker in question. While such a focus is understandable, it can fail to recognize the relationship between conditions of work and the character or nature of that work. In this article, we engage with the issue of teachers' work and workload, presenting interview data from 31 teachers across the state of NSW, Australia. Locating these data within a devolved public education policy context, we argue that increased accountability primarily through paperwork and reporting requirements are operating to re-shape and re-define what it means to be a teacher, and what teachers "do". Such demands are reported to have created a substantial workload increase across the board in our sample, leading to a perceived need for teachers to undertake "triage" in their work, leaving some – if not all – activities ultimately incomplete. We explore these tensions in the data and raise questions about the forms of labour teachers currently undertake in schools; why they do so; and whether such work is either desirable or sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, gender differences in education have been an area of policy concern, research, and development partnerships. The international agenda of gender equality has been adopted by national governments even in countries, such as Afghanistan, where predominant views are clearly at variance with this agenda. Attempts to analyse such conditions must be based on examination of gender and education in the broader political and cultural context. Gender issues have been a central theme in an EU-funded Master's programme in Educational Research and Development for Afghan students at Nangarhar University, conducted during 2008–2010. This article analyses the political and cultural context of gender in Afghanistan, which constitutes the framework for the Afghan students' understandings of gender and education. These are examined as expressed in texts produced by the students and in group interviews. On the basis of our analysis, the following tension is clear: the students are aware of the international agenda of gender equality in education, but at the same time they are concerned about problems in the practical application of this agenda in their own society and relate these concerns to their interpretations of principles of Islam and Afghan cultural traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Singapore's language-in-education policies have always prescribed that only a standard variety of English be allowed in teaching and learning. This view of upholding a standard has been pervasive not only in education but also throughout Singapore's society. In this article, we review Singapore's language policy, emphasizing the functional polarization of languages ideology that serves as its basis, and discuss the resultant natural emergence of the key linguistic marker of Singaporean national identity – Singlish. Charting the journey and growth of Singlish's role and status from both official and socio-cultural perspectives, we highlight that changes can be observed. It is, thus, imperative that Singlish's place in language classrooms and the affordances that Singlish has for language learning be reconsidered. Following a discussion of salient Singlish features, highlighting their appropriacy in social situations where standard English features are not and the fact that many Singapore English features are recognizably shared by both Singlish and Singapore Standard English, we propose a linguistic feature-based contrastive analysis approach for Singapore's English language classrooms. At the core, we call for a review of Singapore's language-in-education policies and the support of various stakeholders in the bid to nurture confident and effective English language users of the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to investigate the reasons for academic stress in Hong Kong and provide recommendations to the government on ways to alleviate this problem. Using photovoice, 15 undergraduate students from a private community college in Hong Kong were invited to take and discuss photographs regarding their lived experiences of learning. Thematic analysis is applied to generate themes from the photovoice data. The results suggest several possible reasons for academic stress, including examination demands, school administration and parents. However, the underlying social reason for academic stress may be the internal contradictions of the education system. That is, the education system purports to value all-round and whole-person education but subordinates this worthy goal to examination results. Thus, the results of the study suggest that the government should address this internal contradiction by considering educational, economic and cultural factors when planning educational policies and/or changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive investments in higher education have witnessed a proliferation of public and private universities in Malaysia. A parallel development of concern is the view that public university graduates are finding it more difficult than their private university counterparts in transiting from university to work. To test the empirical veracity of this widely expressed belief, data from 441 currently employed graduates from three major urban centres were analysed to determine factors that increased the probability of securing permanent employment within six months of graduation, the officially used cut-off period. While the findings indicated that the transition is eased largely by personal endeavours (other than being Chinese) such as mastering English, attaining a high GPA, and participating in extracurricular activities, we also found a negative association between having a public university qualification and the length taken to secure the first permanent job. We discuss the implications of these findings for Malaysian education policy. If a public university degree indeed disadvantages a graduate in transiting to work, it would undermine the role of public universities as avenues for the upward social mobility of students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Additionally, the large expenditures on public universities would appear to be misallocated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on ethnographic data, the present study examines how being critical has been understood, valued and practiced among students enrolled in international English-as-the-medium-of-instruction (EMI) Master's porgrammes in a top-rated comprehensive university in China. Drawing on the Foucauldian ethico-political axes of self-formation, this article presents three case studies and finds that international and local students form critical selves in diverse ways as influenced by lived experiences of interculturality at personal, institutional and disciplinary levels. The Foucauldian axes enable a holistic understanding of students' formation of critical selves in relation to their past, present and prospective intercultural life trajectories as situated within the social and institutional contexts. It also helps call for a culturally-enriching, self-reflexive approach to critical pedagogy in the context of internationalization of higher education that breaks away from theoretical conceptions of critical thinking as traditionally grounded on essentialist views on cultures and relevant pedagogical norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maths anxiety has been of great concern for many educators and educational policymakers because of its adverse effects on students' maths performance and career path. Various empirical studies have been conducted to explore the factors predicting maths anxiety, and they have typically been based on a limited set of pre-specified variables, such as maths performance and student self-concept. However, to fully grasp the nature of maths anxiety, an exploratory study based on more elaborate prediction models using a wider variety of variables can also benefit educators. To explore the important predictors of maths anxiety and examine the possibility of achieving an acceptable level of prediction accuracy, this study employed the random forest algorithm, logistic regression, and the hierarchical general linear model to build prediction models for maths anxiety based on 194 variables collected from PISA student questionnaires. Among the factors predicting maths anxiety, enjoying maths, self-concept, and attributions to failure were revealed as being the most significant predictors. Confidence in oneself, persistent behavioural characteristics, and pressures from parents or teachers were also selected as important predictors. Educational implications are drawn from the findings of this study, and the advantages and drawbacks of each prediction model are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study challenges prior evidence on the impact of Korea's high-stakes school accountability policy as a tool to improve overall achievement and close achievement gaps. Applying difference-in-differences method, the study compares Korean high school students' reading and math test score trends before and after the policy based on the National Assessment of Educational Achievement (NAEA) vs the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Under the "No Student Below Basic" policy, achievement gains were only evident on NAEA as high-stakes test but not on PISA as low-stake test that emphasizes real-world applications. The achievement gaps between high-performing and low-performing schools narrowed on NAEA but widened on PISA. Through cross-national comparison with the US "No Child Left Behind" policy features and outcomes, the study offers critical insights on the risks of test score inflations and educational limitations under high-stakes school accountability policy by which test results may become neither transferrable nor sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public mass schooling was the major instrument used by the Americans in the performance of their mission to “civilize” Filipinos. Free primary education was implemented right after the islands’ annexation in 1899 and was a critical component (alongside armed force) of the programme for their “pacification”. For the elite, education formed a route into collaborative involvement in the management of the colonial state. By the second decade of colonization, Filipinos were managing the civil service, participating in elected institutions and installed as mayors and governors. Like that of the Spanish, American colonial governance was profoundly reliant on the collaboration of members of thehacienderoclass, and thus implicated in the maintenance of long-established social and political hierarchies. But what did the maintenance of thatstatus quoimply for ordinary Filipinos, now increasingly educated and literate in the language of the colonial power? Specifically, to what extent did this combination of socio-economicstasisand educational progress contribute to spurring early labour migration? This article investigates how far labour migration was seen to be, or functioned as, a mechanism for maintaining social and political stability in the American colonial period. It examines how this phenomenon was related to the free and English-based mass education programme undertaken out of an urge to fulfil what Kipling – writing of the American colonial enterprise – termed “the White Man’s Burden”. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article discusses the impact of the worldwide trend to introduce English as a foreign language (EFL) into primary schools at ever younger ages. This trend has gained momentum in recent years, affecting millions of children in countries throughout Asia. A policy decision of this kind has far-reaching implications but it is often made without consideration of the availability of human and material resources for its implementation. The result is that children may end up learning little or no English, frustrating the intentions of national governments to develop English proficiency amongst the wider population which is, in turn, supposed to contribute to economic development. Drawing on evidence from India and Thailand, this article questions the economic rationale for introducing English into primary schools and argues that decisions on the starting age at which to teach English should, instead, be considered from an educational perspective, taking into account system constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

While the existence of a class, gender, or ethnic gap in educational attainment is well documented for many societies, how the practice of grade retention contributes to these patterns of educational inequality has been inadequately addressed. Given that grade retention is commonly practised in Macao, Macao is used as a case for illustration. Using data from PISA 2009 and a qualitative research project, we seek to demonstrate how inadequate state regulation could make possible the manipulation of grade retention institutionally and individually in Macao. This, in turn, illustrates how the specific contextualized structural operation of grade retention could serve as a mechanism for social differentiation and thus play a role in contributing to the observed educational inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]