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Peripheral blood leucocytes (PBL) have been traditionally used to investigate DNA damage by the comet assay in population studies, but validating alternative non-invasive samples would expand the application of this assay in human biomonitoring. The objectives of this study were (i) to test the validity of salivary leucocytes as a proper biomatrix for the comet assay, (ii) to evaluate the ability of this approach to detect different types of primary and oxidative DNA damage, and (iii) to determine whether frozen salivary leucocytes are still suitable for displaying those types of DNA damage. Fresh and frozen leucocytes isolated from saliva samples (six healthy non-smoking volunteers), were exposed to four genotoxic agents inducing different types of DNA damage, both primary (methyl methanesulfonate, actinomycin-D, ultraviolet radiation) and oxidative (potassium bromate), and standard or enzyme-modified comet assay was conducted. Results were compared with those obtained from PBL. Cells exposed to the four genotoxic agents showed dose-dependent increases of primary and oxidative DNA damage, demonstrating the suitability of all these samples to detect genetic damage from different origin. When comparing baseline levels of DNA damage, just a slight significant increase in primary DNA damage was observed in frozen salivary leucocytes regarding the other biomatrices, but similar results were obtained regarding sensitivity to DNA damage induction by all agents tested. This study demonstrates that salivary leucocytes can be employed in comet assay as an alternative or complement to blood samples. Frozen salivary leucocytes were proved to be a very convenient sample in large biomonitoring studies.

Phosphorylation of H2AX histone (γH2AX) represents an early event in the DNA damage response against double-strand breaks (DSB); hence, its measurement provides a surrogate biomarker of DSB. Recently, we reported initial steps in the standardization of γH2AX assay in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL), addressing the possibility of using cryopreserved samples, and the need of phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) stimulation prior analysis (Toxicol Sci 2015, 144:406-13). Validating the use of whole blood samples as cell specimen for this assay would be particularly useful for human population studies. Hence, in the current study we determined for the first time the feasibility of whole blood samples, both fresh and frozen, to be used in the γH2AX assay, evaluated by flow cytometry, and the convenience of PHA stimulation. Freshly collected and cryopreserved whole blood samples were treated with bleomycin (BLM), actinomycin-D (Act-D) and mitomycin C (MMC); half of the samples were previously incubated with PHA. Results were compared with those from PBL. Negative responses in MMC treatments were probably due to the quiescence of unstimulated cells, or to the short treatment time in PHA stimulated cells. Fresh whole blood samples exhibited a more intense response to BLM and Act-D treatments in stimulated cells, probably due to DSB indirectly produced from other less relevant types of DNA damage. Results obtained in frozen whole blood samples indicate that PHA stimulation is not advisable. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that whole blood samples can be used to assess DSB-related genotoxicity by the flow cytometry γH2AX assay.

Deficiencies in DNA damage response and repair (DDRR) can cause serious pathological outcomes; therefore, having an ability to determine individual DDRR would enhance specificities in health risk assessment and in determining individual's response to cancer therapies. However, most methods for evaluating DDRR are not fully appropriate for population studies. The Challenge-Comet assay has gained acceptance for this purpose. The assay has traditionally used X-rays as challenge agent and isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) as cell specimen. To enhance the usefulness of the assay, the objectives of this investigation were to use differently processed blood samples, to employ other challenge agents with different mechanisms of induction of DNA damage/repair, and to generate protocols for detecting different DDRR capacities. Fresh and frozen blood samples were challenged with bleomycin, methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and ultraviolet light. Significant induction of damage after all treatments, and progressive and time-dependent DDRR were observed. No significant differences were obtained in the DDRR capacities of fresh or frozen whole blood samples as compared to PBMC, except that fresh blood samples showed higher MMS-induced DDRR capacity than PBMC. Results from this study show that the Challenge-Comet assay can be used as routine biomarker of DDRR capacity in human biomonitoring studies, and that whole blood is also a useful biomatrix for this assay. The collected data allow us to recommend different protocols for the Challenge-Comet assay which are useful for evaluating DDRR capacities in several key DNA repair pathways. Consequently, the usefulness of the Challenge-Comet assay can be greatly expanded.

Selenium is an oligoelement with essential biological functions. Diet is the most important selenium source, and intake of this element depends on its concentration in food and amount of food consumed. Among the essential human micronutrients, selenium is peculiar due to its beneficial physiological activity and toxicity. It may have anticarcinogenic effects at low concentrations, whereas at concentrations higher than those necessary for nutrition, it can be genotoxic and carcinogenic. Because of that, selenium is probably the most widely investigated of all the oligonutrients. In the last decades, there has been increasing interest in several nutritional Se compounds because of their environmental, biological, and toxicological properties, particularly for their cancer- and disease-preventing activities. This article gives an overview of the results of in vitro studies on mutagenicity, genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and DNA repair conducted within the last decades with different organic and inorganic selenium compounds. Results from these studies provide a better knowledge on the selenium activity and help to elucidate the reasons underlying its duality in order to regulate its correct use in nutrition and clinic.