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Objectives Theory of Mind (ToM) is a complex human ability that allows people to make inferences on others’ mental states such as beliefs, emotions and desires. Previous studies on ToM in normal aging have provided heterogeneous findings. In the present study we examined whether a mixed calculation of different aspects of ToM may have contributed to these conflicting results. We had two aims. First, we explored the age-related changes in the performance of cognitive vs. affective ToM. Second, we investigated the extent to which the effect of aging on cognitive vs. affective ToM is mediated by age-related differences in executive functions. Method To address these issues three age groups (young, young-old, and old-old adults) were compared on cognitive and affective ToM using the faux pas test. In addition, participants were tested using a battery of executive function tasks tapping on inhibition, working memory updating, and word fluency. Results The analyses indicated that young adults outperform both young-old and old-old adults on cognitive ToM but not on affective ToM. Correlations showed that, whereas cognitive ToM was significantly associated with age, working memory updating, and inhibition, affective ToM was not. Finally, analyses revealed that individual differences in working memory updating (but not inhibition) mediated the effect of age on cognitive ToM. Conclusion Our findings support the view of selective age-related differences on cognitive, but not affective, ToM in normal aging. The distinction between the two ToM components is further supported by a dissociable pattern of correlations with executive functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study examined cultural differences in stereotypes and attributions regarding aging and memory. Two subcultures belonging to the same country, Italy, were compared on general beliefs about memory. Sardinians live longer than other areas of Italy, which is a publically shared fact that informs stereotypes about that subculture. An innovative instrument evaluating simultaneously aging stereotypes and attributions about memory and memory change in adulthood was administered to 52 Sardinian participants and 52 Milanese individuals divided into three age groups: young (20–30), young–old (60–70), and old–old (71–85) adults. Both Milanese and Sardinians reported that memory decline across the life span is more typical than a pattern of stability or improvement. However, Sardinians viewed stability and improvement in memory as more typical than did the Milanese. Interestingly, cultural differences emerged in attributions about memory improvement. Although all Sardinian age groups rated nutrition and heredity as relevant causes in determining the memory decline, Sardinians’ rated typicality of life-span memory improvement correlated strongly with causal attributions to a wide number of factors, including nutrition and heredity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effects of different types of memory training in young and older adults reported in a previous study [Cavallini, E., Pagnin, A., Vecchi, T., 2003. Aging and everyday memory: the beneficial effect of memory training. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 37, 241–257] were again investigated from a longitudinal perspective 2 years after the original memory training sessions. The authors retested the original participants to measure the long-term effectiveness of two mnemonic strategies: the loci technique and strategic training. Three groups of participants (13 adults, M =24.1, 13 younger elderly, M =64.2 and 13 older elderly, M =74.4) were tested using a battery of seven tasks and four questionnaires, to evaluate memory performance and metamemory variables. The three age groups and the two trainings showed similar results on memory performance. Long-term effects were found only on two memory tasks, both were highly related to everyday life showing that, without additional practice, memory performance tended to go back to the original level. Moreover, the beneficial effects of the previous training sessions were particularly evident for older adults in metamemory knowledge and for strategic training in memory complaints. Results partially support the durability of memory training in improving memory performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The authors investigated elderly people''s ability to benefit from specific memory training. Empirical evidence of cognitive aging shows a deterioration in working memory ability but also suggests that elderly people maintain the ability to acquire new information and strategies. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of two different mnemonic strategies (Loci mnemonic vs. Strategic training) in young and older adults and to evaluate the ability of the older groups to improve performance. Participants received extensive practice in the use of a specific strategy. Three groups of participants (20 adult, 20 younger elderly, and 20 older elderly) were tested in the laboratory, as well as in ecological conditions using a battery of cognitive tests. Questionnaires were also administrated to explore cognitive, metacognitive and emotive motivational aspects of working memory performance. The results show the efficacy of both trainings in improving performances in different tasks, particularly the ecological. The elderly benefit from strategies as much as younger people; nevertheless, the memory performances of the latter are higher. Differences between the two trainings are found only in the task evaluating ability to re-use learnt strategies in other unfamiliar situations. Improvement in performance was more pronounced for the strategic training. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background Research on aging has shown a significant decline in ToM after 65 years of age. Despite these age-related difficulties, no study has yet investigated the possibility to improve ToM in older adults. To address this gap we tested the efficacy of a conversation-based ToM training with age-appropriate ToM tasks and its transfer effects on metamemory. Method We examined 72 older adults ( M age = 67.61 years, SD = 6.39 years) assigned to three training conditions: a ToM training, a physical-conversation training and a social-contact group. All participants took part in two 2-h testing and to two 2-h training sessions. Results Results showed that after the intervention, older adults in the ToM training group improved their mental states’ understanding significantly more than participants in the physical-conversation training and in the social-contact groups. Crucially, the positive effect of the ToM intervention generalized to metamemory knowledge. Conclusions This is the first study investigating the efficacy of a ToM training and its transfer effect on metacognition in older adults. From a theoretical point of view, it supports the relation between ToM and metamemory. Practical implications of these data are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]