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This study examines some relevant limnological and hydrogeochemical characteristics of 22 mine pit lakes of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB). The studied pit lakes include some of the largest and historically most important mines of the IPB (including Corta Atalaya and Cerro Colorado in Riotinto, Filon Norte, Filon Centro and Filon Sur in Tharsis, Aznalcollar, or San Telmo) and many other of minor size. As a whole, these lakes constitute, at present, a large volume of highly acidic and metal-polluted water. Some of these pit lakes are very recent (e.g., Corta Atalaya, 2.5 a; Los Frailes, 6 a) and present a continuous hydrological and geochemical evolution, although many others were abandoned decades ago and show nearly constant water volume. Depth profiles obtained in several pit lakes (e.g., San Telmo, Confesionarios, Cueva de la Mora, Concepcion) indicate that many of them have developed meromixis and show, at present, a permanent thermal and chemical stratification with a well defined chemocline separating an anoxic, Fe(II)-rich monimolimnion, and a well mixed, oxygenated and Fe(III)-rich mixolimnion. In the upper layer, the bacterial oxidation of Fe(II) competes with photoreductive processes which take place in the surface water, thus provoking diel cycles of Fe(II) concentration. The observed water chemistry reflects the oxidation and dissolution of pyrite and other sulphides and gangue aluminosilicates from the country rock. The pit lakes of the IPB cover a wide range of water compositions, from circumneutral and relatively low-metal (e.g., Los Frailes, pH 7.2, 0.07 mg/L Fe, 3.8 mg/L Mn, 30 mg/L Zn), to extremely acidic and metal(loid)-rich (e.g., Corta Atalaya, pH 1.2, 36.7 g/L Fe, 6.7 g/L Zn, 1.3 g/L Cu, 159 mg/L As). Most pit lakes, however, are comprised within the pH range of 2.2–3.6 and appear to be strongly buffered by the hydrolysis and precipitation of Fe(III) in the form of schwertmannite, which forms colloids that can sorb trace elements from the aqueous phase.

This work reports the physical properties and water chemistry of 64 AMD discharges from 25 different mines in the IPB draining to the Odiel river watershed, which have been investigated during the hydrologic year 2003–2004. These AMD solutions vary largely in flow rate and chemical composition both spatially (between the different mine sites, suggesting a strong geologic control on AMD chemistry) and seasonally (due to marked hydrologic variations), and include cases with very low pH (mostly in the range 1.4–4), and extreme sulphate (up to 44 g/L SO 4 2 - ) and metal content (e.g., up to 7.7 g/L Fe, 2.6 g/L Al, or 1.4 g/L Zn). Different hydrogeochemical facies of AMD (namely, Fe(II)/anoxic, Fe(III)/suboxic, and aluminous/oxic) are recognized in the field, as a response to the continuous oxidation and hydrolysis of dissolved Fe. Relevant geochemical aspects of these AMD environments are discussed, including: (i) the redox chemistry of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) couple, (ii) the reaction rates for bacterially catalyzed oxidation of Fe(II) and hydrolysis of Fe(III), (iii) the role played by dissolved Fe and Al in the acidity and chemical buffering of the AMD systems, and (iv) the solubility and trace metal retention capacity of the Fe oxyhydroxysulphate and hydrated sulphate minerals commonly associated with AMD. In addition, the mineralogy and chemistry of the Fe precipitates (schwertmannite, jarosite, goethite, ferrihydrite), Al phases (e.g., basaluminite) and Mg–Fe–Al efflorescent SO4 salts (e.g., epsomite, hexahydrite, copiapite, halotrichite, rozenite, coquimbite) present in the AMD-generating mine sites, have also been studied. The mineralogy of the Fe precipitates is well correlated with the water pH (with jarosite at pH ∼ 2, schwertmannite at pH 2–4, basaluminite at pH 4–5, and ferrihydrite at pH > 6). Schwertmannite appears to be the most important mineral phase, both in controlling the Fe solubility at pH 2–4, and as sorbent of trace elements (As, Cu, Zn), which favours natural attenuation. Finally, a basin-scale environmental perspective is given in order to evaluate the impact of AMD on the water quality, including calculation of metal loadings transported by AMD from the most important mine districts in the province.