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Despite having multidimensional positive externalities of renewable energy (RE) in theory, the literature on RE's economic and environmental determinants is still very nascent. We have addressed this research gap by considering a balanced panel of 38 OECD nations attempting a phase-by-phase energy transition. We have used data spanning from 2000 to 2020 and deployed the novel method of moments quantile regression (MMQR) approach. Our results unveil that economic complexity reduces the consumption of renewable energy among the OECD nations, indicating that as the export becomes diversified, energy consumption at the production level becomes more dependent on non-renewable sources. This further suggests that OECD nations are yet to meet their renewable energy generation threshold. Moreover, energy efficiency fosters the consumption of renewable energy, substantiating that energy efficiency and renewable energy share complementary co-movement among the OECD nations. Furthermore, we unravel that environmental technology and natural resource rent have heterogeneous effects on renewable energy consumption in OECD. For instance, environmental technology only boosts RE consumption at the higher quantiles (70th to 95th), whereas revenue from natural resource rent curbs RE consumption. Our conclusions hold after a series of robustness checks. Overall, we propose that OECD nations should only export those products with absolute comparative advantage to reduce excessive dependence on fossils. Additionally, investment in renewable energy technology development should be escalated to ensure energy efficiency in the long-term. • The impacts of economic complexity (ECI), environmental technology (ENT), natural resource rent (NRT) and energy efficiency (EFX) on green energy use explored. • We use novel non-parametric method of moments quantile regression approach for OECD countries. • The ECI curbs the consumption of renewable energy while EFX is a boon for it. • ENT and NRT have heterogenous effects on RE consumption. • We also note different causal relationships to rectify the results' robustness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the use of fossil fuels has had a harsh impact on the climate, and the frequency and intensity of various extreme weather events have increased, which has triggered an increased the use of renewable energy sources and reflection on technological advances. Many countries are trying to promote renewable energy to reduce their impact on climate change, but the impact of national energy policies in the climate risk framework remains poorly understood. Based on the panel data of 84 developed/developing countries around the world from 2006 to 2019, this paper studies and analyzes the impact of renewable energy use on climate risk. The study found that the increase in the proportion of renewable energy use can reduce the climate risk, and this result is still robust after undergoing robustness tests such as changing variables, samples, and research methods. The findings offer an important solution for European countries, where climate risks are most acute. The heterogeneity analysis shows that the higher the level of economic development, population density and the lower the level of incorruptibility, the weaker the inhibitory effect of renewable energy use on climate risk. The mechanism analysis also shows that the increase in the proportion of renewable energy use can reduce climate risk by reducing carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH 4), nitrogen monoxide (NO), PM2.5 emissions, and the proportion of fossil fuel use, but it does not reduce climate risk by increasing biodiversity. In particular, we find that technological progress has not played a role in the use of renewable energy to reduce climate risk, breaking the stereotype. The policy recommendation of this paper is that under the increasing pressure of climate change, the transition to clean energy is an indispensable option, and the need to accelerate the energy transition becomes more urgent. There is a greater need to further protect biodiversity and enhance technological progress. • The increase in the proportion of renewable energy use can reduce the climate risk. • The mechanism is to reduce CO 2 , CH 4 , NO, PM2.5 emissions and fossil fuels use. • The use of renewable energy cannot reduce climate risks by increasing biodiversity. • The impact of renewable energy use on climate risk is heterogeneous. • Technological progress has not played a role in the use of renewable energy to reduce climate risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transitioning to sustainable energy is a global imperative for countries to develop policies to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7 and 13. Given the possible association between digital inclusion (DIGI) and the energy transition (EGTN), we examined the impact of DIGI on the EGTN while controlling for environmental taxes (ENTX) in the top-5 greenest economies in the world using quarterly data from 2001 to 2021. We examined the association at short-, medium-, and long-term frequencies using comprehensive approaches such as the Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR) for panel analysis and Wavelet techniques, i.e., wavelet coherence, multiple wavelet, and partial wavelet for country-specific assessment. According to the MMQR results, DIGI has a significant and positive effect on EGTN, with a coefficient value ranging from 10.95 to 5.980 while moving from lower (0.25) to higher (0.95) quantiles. Similarly, ENTX has a positive and significant effect on EGTN, with a coefficient value ranging from 1.770 to 3.132 as the quantiles increase. In addition, the results of wavelet coherence expose a strong and positive connectedness between DIGI and EGTN in each sample country. Furthermore, multiple wavelet results for each country demonstrated that ENTX significantly strengthens the interaction between DIGI and EGTN. Our findings result in developing SDGs-oriented policy guidelines, specifically the policy strategy for addressing SDG-7 and SDG-13. The study endorses that the sample countries take initiatives to accelerate the EGTN process by improving digital inclusion and implementing an effective environmental taxation system. • We evaluated the role of digital inclusion on energy transition. • The study also considers the role of environmental taxes. • The study employed panel data from 2001 to 2020 for the greenest economies. • Digital inclusion and environmental taxes promote energy transition. • The panel results are validated by the wavelet analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing interest in energy sufficiency (ES); however, it remains conceptually debated and contested. This study presents a novel approach to measuring ES using unique microdata on the energy consumption of Japanese households. This approach determines lower and upper thresholds regarding domestic energy consumption for each household type and then identifies whether people really meet an adequate level of domestic energy services, with their diverse energy needs considered. The result illustrates that most people in Japan live in ES, despite about one-tenth being in energy poverty (EP) and one-twentieth in energy extravagance (EE). In addition, this study empirically clarifies the characteristics of people in ES, as well as those in EP and EE. People in ES and EE generally belong to higher income groups, live in larger houses, and are less committed to energy-saving behaviours; the opposite applies to people in EP. As a policy implication, this study suggests more progressive energy tariffs and carbon pricing, as well as improvement in access to renewable energy for the EP population, to engender an inclusive low-carbon energy transition and allow everyone to achieve ES. • First evaluation of people's 'energy sufficiency' (ES) using Japanese microdata. • Identified households in energy poverty, energy sufficiency and energy extravagance. • One tenth of people are in energy poverty and one twentieth in energy extravagance. • The prevalence of energy sufficiency is much related to income and housing size. • More progressive energy tariffs are suggested to allow everyone to achieve ES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • An overview of the state of the art in community energy storage (CES) is provided. • CES is conceptualized and analyzed as complex socio-technical system. • Responsibility in CES design and implementation is operationalized. • CES is not only technical but also social innovation. • The added-value of CES go beyond economic benefits to wider societal benefits. Abstract The decreasing cost of energy storage and increasing demand for local flexibility are opening up new possibilities for energy storage deployment at the local level. Community energy storage (CES) is expected to contribute positively towards energy transition while accommodating the needs and expectations of citizens and local communities. Yet, the technological and societal challenges of integrating CES in the largely centralized present energy system demand for socio-technical innovation. In this article, we develop and discuss several configurations of CES. Applying system innovation and socio-technical transition frameworks and conceptualizing CES as a complex socio-technical system, different dynamics of CES in the energy systems such as coordination and interaction among actors and components of CES and the larger energy system is explored. The responsible research and innovation (RRI) framework can provide a new discourse in design and implementation of CES, facilitating the transition to a sustainable, reliable, inclusive and affordable future energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Energy justice is won through the exnovation of carbon intensive energy structures. • Exnovation takes away burdens which result from fossil-fueled energy production. • Organized publics push for exnovation and by so doing enhance energy justice. • Organized publics push for exnovations in transparent and accountable ways. Abstract Whereas campaigners for energy justice frequently seek to achieve decarbonization through innovation, little light has been shed on how energy justice might be won through the removal of carbon intensive energy structures—a process known as exnovation, which is the opposite of innovation. Whereas practicing exnovation to decarbonize energy systems and thus achieving greater energy justice appears to be a promising approach, it remains a challenge in light of the deep incumbency of established fossil-fuel-based energy industries. Using the example of Germany, which represents such a setting of deep fossil fuel incumbency, this article compares two organizations aiming to achieve energy justice via exnovation when formal policy-making toward decarbonization seems impossible. Offering a perspective on strategies for energy justice, the article identifies the repertoires of contention of two organizations. This concerns knowledge dissemination, symbolic protest, and rule compliance, which can be understood as soft (non-obligatory) policy instruments to bring about exnovation. The article then discusses the relationship between exnovation and intra- and intergenerational energy justice. It concludes that the means of contention analyzed here are successful in divesting and in stopping the construction of planned coal plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing future energy scenarios is an important topic to energy planners. As designing future optimized scenarios is a multi-objective optimization problem; therefore, it is required to identify trade-off scenarios (Pareto-front) in order to optimize conflicting objectives. In this study, three Pareto-fronts are identified for designing future scenarios for Val di Non (VdN) for three different time horizons. As the community has to reach different emission targets in different time horizons, it is require to select the optimized scenarios that fulfill the targets. In this regards, we propose a new approach for selecting scenarios based on maximizing decision space diversity in order to provide a diverse set of scenarios to the decision makers. The technique is tested on optimized scenarios of VdN and three sets containing 10 diverse scenarios for different time horizons are selected. Moreover, a smooth transition (in terms of decision variables) is desirable when having a transition from a scenario from one time horizon to a consecutive time horizon. A novel method is proposed to choose scenarios from the sets for a smooth transition based on minimizing distances among the scenarios. The approach is applied on VdN where transient scenarios are identified among different possible optimized scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is more or less consensus around the problems related to the existing energy systems. Most focus has been on the negative environmental effects of using fossil fuels. Many papers and reports conclude that renewable energy has the potential to run the world and the technology needed to do so is available. An important question is: why such a big potential is only marginally utilized? This paper analyzes the reasons why we ended up in today’s energy systems. In order to develop pathways for change, scenarios can be used to support decision making involving all key actors in the society. The scenarios must be established on the comparison between different primary energy sources at a fundamental thermodynamic level. The paper proposes the principles for evolutionary forecasting scenarios (EFS) with two sets of criteria to investigate technology development and long-term energy transition. Primary criteria are based on the first and second law of thermodynamics. They can be used to simulate the development of energy transformation technologies. The result implies that engineers must consider the system level when they develop energy technology. The secondary criteria, which are mainly based on subjective-values, should be used for evaluating different roadmaps obtained from these simulations. It is important that the evaluations of scenarios are carried out in broad dialogue processes with key actors in order to make the roadmaps easy to implement and follow up in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Novel data-driven platform to predict and evaluate energy transition policies. • Quantitatively evaluate impacts of energy transition policies. • Make effective forecasting and timely adjustment in energy policies. • Powerfulness of platform is demonstrated in representative metropolitan regions. • Adjustment recommendations for different stakeholders in energy industry. To meet widely recognised carbon neutrality targets, over the last decade metropolitan regions around the world have implemented policies to promote the generation and use of sustainable energy. Nevertheless, there is an availability gap in formulating and evaluating these policies in a timely manner, since sustainable energy capacity and generation are dynamically determined by various factors along dimensions based on local economic prosperity and societal green ambitions. We develop a novel data-driven platform to predict and evaluate energy transition policies by applying an artificial neural network and a technology diffusion model. Using Singapore, London, and California as case studies of metropolitan regions at distinctive stages of energy transition, we show that in addition to forecasting renewable energy generation and capacity, the platform is particularly powerful in formulating future policy scenarios. We recommend global application of the proposed methodology to future sustainable energy transition in smart regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of its energy transition strategy, China has set ambitious targets for increasing the contribution of renewable energy and, in particular, of wind power. However, the Chinese power sector has not undergone the necessary reforms to facilitate the integration and absorption of a larger share of variable renewable energy. This is evident from the difficulties in absorbing wind power from already commissioned wind farms and the resultant curtailment of wind power. Pumped storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is a flexible power source that can facilitate higher penetration levels of wind power as well as complement China’s growing nuclear power capacity. However, regulatory policy constraints have restricted the effective utilization of existing PSH capacity and discouraged investment in new PSH capacity. This paper examines these constraints and assesses the likely impact of new policies designed to address them. Finally, policy recommendations and concluding remarks are provided. This paper contributes to the literature on renewable energy integration from a new perspective. The lessons from China are relevant to other countries going through the energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We provide an overview of the dynamics between energy transition and COVID-19. • We identify the challenges and opportunities for energy transition under COVID-19. • We investigate the impact of global economic recovery stimulus on energy transition. • We propose a practical roadmap for the post-pandemic energy transition. • We enrich the framework on global low-carbon energy transition. The COVID-19 pandemic has created significant challenges for energy transition. Concerns about the overwhelming emphasis on economic recovery at the cost of energy transition progress have been raised worldwide. More voices are calling for "green" recovery scheme, which recovers the economy while not compromising on the environment. However, limited academic attention has been paid to comprehensively investigating the implications of COVID-19 for global energy transition. This study thus provides a comprehensive analysis of the dynamics between energy transition and COVID-19 around the world and proposes a low-carbon energy transition roadmap in the post-pandemic era. Using energy data from the International Energy Agency (IEA), we first summarized and reviewed the progress of energy transition prior to COVID-19. Building on prior progress, we identified the challenges for energy transition during the pandemic from the perspectives of government support, fossil fuel divestment, renewable energy production capacity, global supply chain, and energy poverty. However, the pandemic also generates opportunities for global energy transition. We hence also identified potential opportunities for energy transition presented by the pandemic from the perspectives of price competitiveness, policy implementation efficiency, and renewable energy strengths. We further provided an in-depth discussion on the impact of current worldwide economic recovery stimulus on energy transition. Based on the identified challenges and opportunities, we proposed the post-pandemic energy transition roadmap in terms of broadening green financing instruments, strengthening international cooperation, and enhancing green recovery plans. Our study sheds light on a global low-carbon energy transition framework and has practical implications for green recovery schemes in post-pandemic times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Clean energy transitions based on the circular economy (CE) are analysed for a town in China. • This could reduce energy use, CO 2 emissions and PM 2.5 emissions compared to the BAU scenario. • COVID pandemic is a new opportunity to introduce circular economy measures. • Circular economy measures could accelerate clean energy transitions. This paper models the energy and emissions scenarios for a circular economy based clean energy transitions in a 140,000-population town in China, taking into account the new situation encountered by the COVID-19 pandemic. The modelled scenarios propose new clean energy transition roadmaps towards a sustainable urban system through the implementation of circular economy strategies. This is represented by the cascading use of industrial excess heat to form symbiosis between factories and to cover the growing building heat demand, as well as by the electrification of the transport sector and reusing the batteries for a second life as energy storage devices. The results show that for a circular economy scenario, during 2020–2040, an accumulated saving of 7.1 Mtoe final energy use (34%), a decline in 14.5 Mt CO 2 emissions (40%) and 592 t PM 2.5 emissions (43%) could be achieved compared with the business-as-usual scenario. The outcomes of the circular economy strategies are at least 7% better than the new policy scenario which simply has energy efficiency improvements. The outbreak of the COVID-19 tremendously impacts the socio-economic activities in the town. If taking the pandemic as an opportunity to enhance the circular economy, by 2040, compared with the scenario without introducing circular economy measures, the extra avoided final energy use, CO 2 emissions and PM 2.5 emissions could be 1.6 Mtoe (8%), 3.8 Mt (11%) and 229 t (17%) respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the necessary transition to sustainable power systems, fossil generators are used to complement generation from renewable energies. Yet not all fossil technologies can be operated flexibly enough to balance the fluctuating output of renewables. I study how the efficient transition to renewables is influenced by the endowment with flexible and inflexible generators. To this end, I develop a parsimonious analytical model that incorporates a variable renewable energy (VRE) technology with stochastic generation availability as well as flexible and inflexible fossil generators with rigid capacities. I find that early in the transition, VRE generation replaces generation from flexible capacities. Only later is the output of inflexible generation reduced and substituted by increasing flexible and renewable generation. The early deployment of VRE is hampered by high inflexible capacities. However, deployment speed surges once VRE generation begins to substitute inflexible generation. The more excess capacities exist in the initial endowment, the higher the sudden increase in deployment is. The decreasing use of inflexible fossil generation is usually accompanied by an increasing utilization of flexible generators. Nevertheless, constructing additional flexible capacities is only cost-efficient if a cost threshold is not exceeded. By contributing to a better understanding of the impact of flexibility on efficient VRE deployment, this work aims to facilitate an efficient transition to renewable energies. • New analytical model to analyze power system transitions under limited flexibility. • Renewables first replace flexible generation and later inflexible generation. • Instant increase of renewables is efficient once use of inflexible plants decreases. • Benefits of flexible generation peak when inflexible plants are no longer used. • Excess capacity endowments induce fluctuations in renewable deployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Sector coupling leads to lower cost of energy supply in a RE-based system. • Power sector becomes the backbone of the entire energy system. • Integration impact depends on demand profiles, flexibility and storage cost. • Electrolysers are an important source of flexibility in an integrated system. • All sector defossilisation is achieved even for severe conditions as of Kazakhstan. Transition towards long-term sustainable energy systems is one of the biggest challenges faced by the global society. By 2050, not only greenhouse gas emissions have to be eliminated in all energy sectors: power, heat, transport and industry but also these sectors should be closely coupled allowing maximum synergy effects and efficiency. A tool allowing modelling of complex energy system transition for power, heat, transport and industry sectors, responsible for over 75% of the CO 2eq emissions, in full hourly resolution, is presented in this research and tested for the case of Kazakhstan. The results show that transition towards a 100% sustainable and renewable energy based system by 2050 is possible even for the case of severe climate conditions and an energy intensive industry, observed in Kazakhstan. The power sector becomes backbone of the entire energy system, due to more intense electrification induced sector coupling. The results show that electrification and integration of sectors enables additional flexibility, leading to more efficient systems and lower energy supply cost, even though integration effect varies from sector to sector. The levelised cost of electricity can be reduced from 62 €/MWh in 2015 to 46 €/MWh in 2050 in a fully integrated system, while the cost of heat stays on a comparable level within the range of 30–35 €/MWh, leading to an energy system cost on a level of 40–45 €/MWh. Transition towards 100% renewable energy supply shrinks CO 2eq emissions from these sectors to zero in 2050 with 90% of the reduction achieved by 2040. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In power systems, flexibility can be defined as the ability to cope with variability and uncertainty in generation and demand. The ongoing energy transition is affecting how much flexibility is required, but also who should provide it: some existing solutions are being phased out, while new solutions' entire business models are based on providing flexibility (e.g. storage or demand response). With the intention of condensing information and rationalising debates, a significant number of methods have been proposed to quantify various facets of flexibility; this paper reviews and classifies them depending on the question they attempt to address. We propose a pair of novel tools to quantify a comparatively unexplored aspect of flexibility: who is providing it. These frequency spectrum analysis based tools separately quantify flexibility provision on the annual, weekly and daily timescales. The tools' effectiveness and versatility is demonstrated through several example applications, analysing both historical and prospective power systems, in several geographical locations with contrasting characteristics. The proposed tools are of particular value to the capacity expansion planner, allowing them to quantify changes in flexibility provision as new solutions are introduced, or as carbon taxes, generation and interconnector capacities evolve. • Historical analysis shows evolutions in definitions of power system flexibility. • Flexibility quantification methods are classified depending on the question addressed. • Method quantifies flexibility provision over annual, weekly and daily timescales. • Applications show future flexibility contribution of electric vehicle smart charging. • Applications show contribution of cross-border trade in highly interconnected systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Electricity and electrification is a viable solution for the energy transition. • Electricity triangle assures a consistent framework for the energy transition. • Multifaceted benefits: energetic, environmental and socio-economic. • Conceptualization of a set of metrics for impact assessment. • A real case study (Italy) considering its evolution up to 2050. Greenhouse gases along with pollution generated by the present energy paradigm widely based on fossil fuels are providing large impacts in terms of climate change and the health of human and biological systems at large. A shift in the energy paradigm, from fossil fuels to renewable energy, is urgently needed for nature and society. This is what we refer to as the energy transition. An old commodity – electricity – can play a new key role in the energy transition. That can happen through what we call the electricity triangle involving electricity generation from Renewable Energy Sources, exploitation of electricity as the main energy vector, and electrification of the final energy uses in all sectors. The possible deployment of the electricity triangle must be carefully assessed in all its possible implications, from technological, economic, societal and environmental perspectives. In this paper, we conceptualize the electricity triangle as a viable approach to the energy transition, and we propose a set of holistic metrics to assess its possible impacts. We apply the electricity triangle framework to the case of Italy based on sectorial studies on RES generation and electrification in building, industry and transport sectors. Our results indicate that Italy in 2050 has the potential to achieve 85.6% penetration of RES in its electricity supply, while 41%, 53% and 42% of the energy consumptions in transport, residential, and industry sectors will be electrified. Ultimately, this would lead to a 68% reduction in CO 2 emissions compared to current levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Industrial demand-side flexibility holds unique potentials for system stability. • Hereby, it may be an engine for sustainable and inclusive industrial development. • We illustrate guidelines of a corresponding flexibility transition pathway. • We develop a first monitoring approach for a country's flexibility transition. • Our monitoring approach indicates mis-developments and needed countermeasures. In many countries, industry is one of the largest consumers of electricity. Given the special importance of electricity for industry, a reliable electricity supply is a basic prerequisite for further industrial development and associated economic growth. As countries worldwide transition to a low-carbon economy (in particular, by the development of renewable energy sources), the increasing fluctuation in renewable energy production requires new flexibility options within the electricity system in order to guarantee security of supply. It is advanced in this paper that such a flexibility transition with an active participation of industry in general has unique potential: It will not only promote green industrial development, but also become an engine for inclusive industrial development and growth as well as delivering a just transition to a low-carbon economy. Given the high potential of industrial demand-side flexibility, a first monitoring approach for such a flexibility transition is illustrated, which bases on a flexibility index. Our flexibility index allows for an indication of mis-developments and supports an appropriate implementation of countermeasures together with relevant stakeholders. Hence, it holds various insights for both policy-makers and practice with respect to how industrial demand-side flexibility can ensure advances towards an inclusive, just, and sustainable industrial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Mapped evolution of China's policy mix for sustainable energy transition 1981–2020. • Over time China forms complex policy mix by layering and packaging instruments. • China has increased the diversity and number of policy instruments used. • Rise in charges on emissions and decrease in subsidies for renewables is observed. • Policy experimentation dominates policy instruments used to reduce carbon emissions. Global warming and the acute domestic air pollution in China have necessitated transition to a sustainable energy system away from coal-dominated energy production. Through a systematic review of the national policy documents, this study investigates the policy mix adopted by the Chinese government to facilitate its energy transition and how that policy mix has evolved between 1981 and 2020. The chronological analysis emphasizes two dimensions of temporal changes in the policy mix: (1) changes in the policy intensity and density, and (2) the shift in policy instrument combinations. The policy mix has evolved from a few authority-based instruments to the current response that has a large density of instruments with a good diversity of instrument types. The Chinese government imposes an increasing policy intensity on air pollution abatement and a decreasing policy intensity on renewable energy support, and experiments with innovative policy instruments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The evolutionary trajectory features layering new policy instruments, calibrating existing ones and some degree of policy replacement and sequencing. Overall, the study shows that the Chinese government has adopted a complex mix of policy instruments to abate emissions (e.g. carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide) in the coal-based energy system and to support renewable energy technologies. The study provides an in-depth understanding of Chinese policy design in the environment and energy fields and contributes to the public policy literature by filling a research gap – the comparative lack of empirical analyses on the temporal changes in the policy mixes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An escalating $25 tax on electricity reduces carbon emissions and increase jobs. • Fuel switching has a greater impact than demand reduction in decreasing carbon. • Household carbon tax dividends would exceed household utility bill increases. • Job impacts vary across regions, influenced by path dependencies and resources. • This paper introduces meta-modeling to the climate policy modeling community. While the environmental benefits of carbon taxes are well documented, their employment impacts are not. We simulate an escalating $25/tCO 2 tax on the U.S. electricity system and estimate the resulting employment effects using a computable general equilibrium model. Meta-modeling of the results reveals how carbon taxes influence costs, prices, fuel shares and jobs. Overall, we estimate that the carbon tax would increase U.S. employment – e.g., by 511,000 jobs in 2030. Regional heterogeneities are explained, in part, by the path dependency of electricity portfolios and by regional resource variations. The carbon tax would motivate significant CO 2 emission reductions, as well as utility bill increases that could on average be offset by carbon tax dividends. The possibility of inter-regional wealth transfers is highlighted, underscoring the importance of revenue recycling and other policy features that promote inclusive benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The contributors to the change in global renewable energy use are analyzed. • A new variant of a structural decomposition analysis introduces energy transition. • Energy transition contributed little to the change in global renewable energy use. • Also the global effects of changes in trade structure are very small. • Affluence, population growth and technology changes are the main contributors. This study investigates the growth in global renewable energy use between 2000 and 2014. To identify its main contributors and their geographical distribution, a structural decomposition analysis is applied to global multi-regional input-output tables. A new variant of this type of analysis is developed that introduces energy transition (i.e. the substitution of non-renewable energy by renewable energy) as one of the contributors. Global renewable energy use rose by 22.1 Exa Joules (EJ), from 57.8 EJ in 2000 to 79.9 in 2014. The contribution of energy transition at the global level to this 22.1 EJ increase was small and positive (+1.3 EJ). As for the geographical distribution of the effects, positive effects are found for the European Union and the United States, negative effects for China, India, and the Rest of the World (which includes many developing and emerging countries). Trade structure changes also had a small effect on global renewable energy use (+1.1 EJ). The main contributions were the worldwide changes in: technology and overall energy efficiency (−23.6 EJ); consumption per capita (+32.2EJ); and population (+11.0 EJ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]