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Lying is a highly motivated behaviour in dairy cows. The level of comfort provided by the lying surface not only affects lying time, but can also affect several other aspects of welfare. We used a crossover design to compare shredded paper and sawdust bedding in relation to lying behaviour, activity, lameness, integument damage, cleanliness and productivity. Cubicles were bedded with a thin layer of bedding, which was replaced as necessary to retain its hygienic state. Twenty-eight lactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into two balanced groups that experienced each bedding treatment for a 2 week period in opposing order. Paper bedding resulted in significantly less time spent lying down (paper: 45 %, SD ± 6.7, sawdust: 48 %, SD ± 7.3, P 0.10). Furthermore, no significant effects on step count, damage to the integument, cleanliness or milk yields were observed (P > 0.10). Slips were too rare overall for analysis. These findings indicate that paper bedding and sawdust were mostly comparable in terms of impact on behaviour, welfare and productivity when provided on a short-term basis. Future trials are recommended to determine if treatment effects persist following prolonged exposure to paper bedding. Assessing the longitudinal development of lameness and the long-term impact of reduced lying time will be essential.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of providing paper or rope, alternative enriching substrates to straw, to piglets in farrowing crates on piglet and sow welfare. Sixty multiparous sows and their litters were housed in crates that were either barren (BARREN), enriched with shredded paper (PAPER) or natural fibre rope (ROPE). Enriching substrates were introduced when piglets were 10 days old. The proportion of sows with udder and teat lesions before parturition and at weaning was recorded. Piglet facial lesions were scored according to severity on days 11, 18 and 27. Sow and piglet behaviour was recorded using scan sampling on days 14, 18, 22 and 26. Furthermore, the behaviour of one male and one female focal piglet per litter was recorded continuously for 10 min twice per day on days 14, 18, 22 and 26. On day 27 post-partum, focal piglets were observed for 5 min in a novel arena and for a further 5 min after a novel object was introduced. On day 27, there was a tendency for more BARREN sows to have teat lesions ( P = 0.07). PAPER litters tended to have a smaller proportion of piglets with facial lesions ( P = 0.06). ROPE piglets were active in the enriched area of the crate in more observations than BARREN and PAPER piglets ( P P P P P = 0.05). In conclusion, shredded paper improved piglet welfare and was easily incorporated into the farrowing crates.

The functional classifications of interdog aggression are as diverse as the types of aggression that dogs direct toward people. An effort should be made to determine the reason a dog exhibits aggression to another or at least to identify the stimulus complex that elicits the aggression. The latter is particularly important regarding daily management of the animal and if the clinician intends to implement a behavior modification program. Classical desensitization and counter-conditioning techniques can be used to treat aggression stemming from fear. Intermale aggression can often be reduced by castration and/or progestin therapy. Regardless of the motivation, the response of an aggressive dog on a leash towards other dogs can be counter-conditioned. The use of a “dog-head-halter” can be very helpful and a prudent safety precaution when implementing such a program. Managing aggressive behaviors of dogs within a household can be very difficult and not always practical or implementable. Sometimes these situations can be managed by identifying the stimulus complexes in which aggression occurs, and designing a behavior modification program that rewards one of both dogs for inhibiting themselves, e.g. remaining motionless, sitting or lying down. For example, both dogs might be taught to sit immediately when the owner enters the house; Dog A is rewarded for remaining quiet while the owner pets Dog B, etc. Even if the owner is able to control the aggressive behaviors of his/her dogs with such exercises, it should not be assumed that the dogs will be unaggressive in the owner’s absence. The person is part of the counterconditioning process and undoubtedly serves as a discriminating stimulus for whether or not the dogs engage in passive behaviors. It should never be assumed that dogs that are aggressive in the presence of the owner (especially if the aggression is severe) will be “all right” when the owner is not there. Dogs have been known to kill another dog when the owner has not been there to intervene. 0168-1591/95/$09.50

The aim of this scoping review was to consolidate information pertaining to welfare and quality of life assessments of shelter dogs. Specific objectives were to identify and characterize types of welfare assessment instruments, discuss circumstances where welfare and quality of life assessments are used, and identify research gaps. A comprehensive search strategy was implemented in five databases. Literature published globally between the years 2000 and 2020 was identified using specific search terms. Abstracts and full papers were screened, relevant articles obtained, and welfare assessment methods characterized. Of 670 unique citations identified, 43 met the inclusion criteria of including a welfare or quality of life assessment for shelter dogs. There were 16 different assessment tools used to evaluate welfare and quality of life in shelter dogs. Ethogram-based assessment tools, five of which were validated, were used in 37 publications. Physiological based assessment methods were used to assess welfare in 26 publications. Overall, assessment tools were used to either evaluate a dog’s acclimation to the shelter environment or evaluate welfare interventions. Several validated tools were identified that could be useful to shelters depending on need. The Multi-Operator Qualitative Behavioral Assessment and the Quality of Life Assessment are tools allowing for quick welfare assessments by shelter staff, while the Shelter Quality Protocol and the Shelter Quality Protocol 2 are more comprehensive welfare assessments, which require some experience or training in shelter management. The review identified few papers that evaluated the effects of chronic stress on dogs housed in a shelter environment long-term. Therefore, welfare of these dogs should be a priority for future studies. The range of assessment methods underscores the complexity of evaluating welfare and quality of life in different types of sheltering environments.

The methods by which dogs are trained vary between methods involving mainly negative reinforcement and positive punishment (aversive-based methods) and methods based essentially in positive reinforcement and negative punishment (reward-based methods). However, the use of aversive-based methods is highly controversial. While some people defend their merits, others are concerned with their potential negative effect on dog welfare. To date, some studies have been performed aiming to assess the effects of aversive- and rewardbased methods on the welfare and behaviour of dogs. In the present paper we perform a comprehensive review of those studies with the aim of characterizing the state of the art of scientific knowledge of the topic. Generally, the published studies suggest that the use of aversive-based methods is correlated with indicators of compromised welfare in dogs, namely stress‐related behaviours during training, elevated cortisol levels and problematic behaviours such as fear and aggression. However, there are a number of limitations that prevent any strong conclusion from being drawn. First, a considerable proportion of the studies relied upon surveys rather than on objective measures. Second, they focused on sub-populations of police and laboratory dogs and, thus, only represent a small portion of dogs undergoing training. Finally, the empirical studies have concentrated mainly on the effects of shock-collar training, which is only one of several tools used in aversive-based training, and, in some studies, the description of the training methodologies lacks details. Here we present a description of the published studies, discuss their limitations, debate other aspects that, in parallel with the nature of the training methods, may affect dog welfare, and point to future directions for research on the topic. Ana Catarina Vieira de Castro was funded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia with an individual post-doc grant (SFRH/BPD/111509/2015). The work undergoing the present review paper did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors.

One Welfare describes the interconnection between animal welfare, human wellbeing and their physical and social environment. The SARS-CoV-2 virus is the cause of COVID-19 and emerged as a human pathogen in 2019 although is thought to have a zoonotic source. The original wildlife reservoir and any potential intermediate hosts have not yet been identified. The combination of the virus zoonotic condition together with the impacts of disease control measures has exposed clear interconnections between animals, people and their environment from both a health and a welfare perspective. The One Welfare Framework comprises five sections that can help understand the different One Welfare levels on which the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the world. This paper uses the One Welfare Framework to provide an overview of examples, within each of the five sections, where evidence is and/or can be made available to document COVID-19 impacts on One Welfare. The paper identifies a number of areas where further research and evidence gathering is required to better understand the different One Welfare impacts. Based on evidence summarised in this paper the author recommends that those responsible for managing the COVID-19 impacts and for planning the future recovery phase of the pandemic should consider adopting a holistic approach, including both health and welfare, by adopting & One Health, One Welfare& policies.

All non-human great apes are endangered, and for these animals, captive individuals play an important role in the species’ conservation management plan. Therefore, information about their current enrichment activities is essential for maintaining a healthy captive population. This paper reviews research where digital media is used as cognitive enrichment for great apes with a particular focus on orangutans, and assesses its appropriateness and relevance for current and future enrichment programs. The paper provides a holistic overview of topical issues surrounding primates in captivity, including a discussion of primate cognitive abilities, current institutional enrichment strategies and practices, and a chronological review of how digital media technologies have performed within this paradigm. The paper also covers issues in enrichment such as the concept of the power of control, natural versus non-natural enrichment, naturalism/anthropomorphism, stimulation versus stereotypy, and respecting individualism in great apes. This review reveals that as technologies advance interactive digital applications will become increasingly relevant for captive great apes and other primates because of its ability to provide improved solutions where traditional non-digital enrichment may have either failed or proven less efficient. It also highlights the importance of considering the preferences and differences in cognitive abilities of each individual when selecting particular digital enrichment activities. A wide variety of factors including life history, species, sex, age, previous enrichment experience, training routines and methods, and housing conditions will all affect the success of digital media enrichment. With this in mind, this paper identifies gaps in current knowledge, highlighting the need for further studies.

Tail biting in pigs is a multi-factorial problem, and the early rearing environment has been proposed as a potential previously unidentified factor. The aim of this study was to test whether access to chewable material from birth to weaning reduces later tail biting. Undocked litters of 59 sows were allocated to two treatments. In the rope-and-paper treatment ( N =30), the farrowing pens were furnished from birth to weaning with 10 pieces of sisal rope and one plastic ball suspended on the wall, and the piglets were given newspaper and wood shavings twice a day. In the control treatment ( N =29), plastic ball and wood shavings were provided. The average group size was 11 piglets per pen. The piglets were weaned during week 4 after birth and transferred to growing pens, combining two or three litters from the same treatment to each pen, on average 18 pigs per pen. The growing pens were identical for both treatment groups: each had three pieces of sisal rope and a plastic chewing toy. Wood shavings were given twice a day. Behaviour was recorded on video during weeks 2, 3 and 9 after birth. Tail damage was scored during week 9. During weeks 2 and 3 after birth, oral-nasal manipulation of other piglets was less frequent in the rope-and-paper pens than in the controls ( P P P =0.001). During week 9, when both treatment groups had spent five weeks in identical post-weaning environments, oral-nasal manipulation of pen mates and objects no longer differed significantly between the treatment groups ( P >0.1), but there was a significant difference in tail damage. Severe tail damage (part of tail missing, or wounds with inflammation) had a mean prevalence of 9.8% in the pigs that had paper and ropes before weaning, and 32.1% in the controls ( P P =0.002). In undamaged tails, there was no significant difference between the treatment groups ( P >0.1). It is concluded that providing chewable materials in early life has promising potential for reducing the severity of later tail biting.

Tension banding castration of cattle is gaining favour because it is relatively simple to perform and is promoted by retailers of the banders as a humane castration method. Two experiments were conducted, under tropical conditions using Bos indicus bulls comparing tension banding (Band) and surgical (Surgical) castration of weaner (7–10 months old) and mature (22–25 months old) bulls with and without pain management (NSAID (ketoprofen) or saline injected intramuscularly immediately prior to castration). Welfare outcomes were assessed using a range of measures; this paper reports on some physiological, morbidity and productivity-related responses to augment the behavioural responses reported in an accompanying paper. Blood samples were taken on the day of castration (day 0) at the time of restraint (0 min) and 30 min (weaners) or 40 min (mature bulls), 2 h, and 7 h; and days 1, 2, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 post-castration. Plasmas from day 0 were assayed for cortisol, creatine kinase, total protein and packed cell volume. Plasmas from the other samples were assayed for cortisol and haptoglobin (plus the 0 min sample). Liveweights were recorded approximately weekly to 6 weeks and at 2 and 3 months post-castration. Castration sites were checked at these same times to 2 months post-castration to score the extent of healing and presence of sepsis. Cortisol concentrations (mean ± s.e. nmol/L) were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the Band (67 ± 4.5) compared with Surgical weaners (42 ± 4.5) at 2 h post-castration, but at 24 h post-castration were greater in the Surgical (43 ± 3.2) compared with the Band weaners (30 ± 3.2). The main effect of ketoprofen was on the cortisol concentrations of the mature Surgical bulls; concentrations were significantly reduced at 40 min (47 ± 7.2 vs. 71 ± 7.2 nmol/L for saline) and 2 h post-castration (24 ± 7.2, vs. 87 ± 7.2 nmol/L for saline). Ketoprofen, however, had no effect on the Band mature bulls, with their cortisol concentrations averaging 54 ± 5.1 nmol/L at 40 min and 92 ± 5.1 nmol/L at 2 h. Cortisol concentrations were also significantly elevated in the Band (83 ± 3.0 nmol/L) compared with Surgical mature bulls (57 ± 3.0 nmol/L) at weeks 2–4 post-castration. The timing of this elevation coincided with significantly elevated haptoglobin concentrations (mg/mL) in the Band bulls (2.97 ± 0.102 for mature bulls and 1.71 ± 0.025 for weaners, vs. 2.10 ± 0.102 and 1.45 ± 0.025 respectively for the Surgical treatment) and evidence of slow wound healing and sepsis in both the weaner (0.81 ± 0.089 not healed at week 4 for Band, 0.13 ± 0.078 for Surgical) and mature bulls (0.81 ± 0.090 at week 4 for Band, 0.38 ± 0.104 for Surgical). Overall, liveweight gains of both age groups were not affected by castration method. The findings of acute pain, chronic inflammation and possibly chronic pain in the mature bulls at least, together with poor wound healing in the Band bulls support behavioural findings reported in the accompanying paper and demonstrate that tension banding produces inferior welfare outcomes for weaner and mature bulls compared with surgical castration.

Tension-band castration of cattle is gaining favour because it is relatively simple to perform and is promoted by retailers of the devices as a humane castration method. Furthermore, retailers encourage delaying castration to exploit the superior growth rates of bulls compared with steers. Two experiments were conducted, under tropical conditions, comparing tension banding and surgical castration of weaner (7–10 months old) and mature (22–25 months old) Bos indicus bulls with and without pain management (ketoprofen or saline injected intramuscularly immediately prior to castration). Welfare outcomes were assessed using a wide range of measures; this paper reports on the behavioural responses of the bulls and an accompanying paper reports on other measures. Behavioural data were collected at intervals by direct observation and continuously via data loggers on the hind leg of the bulls to 4 weeks post-castration. Tension-banded bulls performed less movement in the crush/chute than the surgically castrated bulls during the procedures (weaner: 2.63 vs. 5.69, P < 0.001; mature: 1.00 vs. 5.94; P < 0.001 for tension-band and surgical castration, respectively), indicating that tension banding was less painful then surgical castration during conduct. To 1.5 h post-castration, tension-banded bulls performed significantly (all P < 0.05) more active behavioural responses indicative of pain compared with surgical castrates, e.g., percentage time walking forwards (weaner: 15.0% vs. 8.1%; mature: 22.3% vs. 15.1%), walking backwards (weaner: 4.3% vs. 1.4%; mature: 2.4% vs. 0.5%), numbers of tail movements (weaner: 21.9 vs. 1.4; mature: 51.5 vs. 39.4) and leg movements (weaner: 12.9 vs. 0.9; mature: 8.5 vs. 1.5), respectively. In contrast, surgically castrated bulls performed more immobile behaviours compared with tension-banded bulls (e.g., standing in mature bulls was 56.6% vs. 34.4%, respectively, P = 0.002). Ketoprofen administration appeared effective in moderating pain-related behaviours in the mature bulls from 1.5 to 3 h, e.g., reducing abnormal standing (0.0% vs. 7.7%, P = 0.009) and increasing feeding (12.7% vs. 0.0%, P = 0.048) in NSAID- and saline-treated bulls, respectively. There were few behavioural differences subsequent to 24 h post-castration, but some limited evidence of chronic pain (3–4 weeks post-castration) with both methods. Interpretation, however, was difficult from behaviours alone. Thus, tension banding is less painful than surgical castration during conduct of the procedures and pain-related behavioural responses differ with castration method (active restlessness in response to tension banding and minimisation of movement in response to surgical castration). Ketoprofen administered immediately prior to castration was somewhat effective in reducing pain, particularly in the mature bulls.

Cats are one of the world’s most populous companion animals, yet little is known about how the home environment is adapted relative to their needs. Outdoor access is thought to be beneficial for both the physical and mental wellbeing of cats, yet as urbanisation increases, reducing owner access to outdoor spaces, an increasing number of cats are kept strictly indoors. The impact of an indoor lifestyle on feline behaviour and welfare is little explored and poorly understood. This study used a systematic review to assess scientifically validated knowledge concerning social and physical environments and their implications for indoor cats. A total of 61 papers were analysed. Only n = 21 papers directly addressed at-home indoor scenarios with the remainder consisting of shelter/cattery (n = 27) or laboratory (n = 16) (some papers explored multiple environments). Across studies there was little evidence of rigour or systematically controlled approaches. Methods frequently used were cat-stress-scores (CSS) and ethograms, neither of which were consistently standardised, substantially reducing the ability to compare findings among studies. Numerous studies explored similar variables (i.e. provision of hiding space (n = 9)) yielding little additional knowledge. Measures of welfare and behaviour were often assessed using single parameters in controlled environments. Although this may be useful and applicable to cat experiences within shelters, catteries and laboratories, the findings do not necessarily translate to dynamic and variable household environments. Major findings include the benefits of enrichment such as hiding boxes and vertical resting spaces, as often recommended by veterinarians and feline charities. However, other advice provided, such as the provision of feeding enrichment for psychological welfare, although not necessarily disputed, appears to be scientifically untested. Additionally, despite the social environment being likely to have a substantial effect on cat welfare, it is particularly under-studied in the home, especially in terms of its complexity (e.g. presence of young children or dogs). Overall, the review identified substantial gaps relative to cat experiences and welfare in multifactorial home environments. Understanding the impact of indoor lifestyles and promoting mechanisms to minimise any negative impacts whilst promoting positive ones, remains an important, yet underexplored, area of research.

In order to understand the impact of different experimental and husbandry procedures on fish, and ensure that the behavioural and physiological needs of fish used in research are met, it is necessary to have detailed knowledge of their behaviour. This knowledge is largely lacking for Atlantic salmon. Results from behavioural studies of rainbow trout are often extrapolated to Atlantic salmon even though this may not be correct. Pre-smolt Atlantic salmon show diurnal variation in behaviour in the wild, but there are no published descriptions of behaviour during the dark hours for salmon held in the laboratory. Thus, the first aim of this paper was to describe the time budget of singly-held salmon both during the light and dark hours on the first and seventh day after introduction to a new environment. Statistical differences in time budget between morning, afternoon and night are described. In addition, three environmental enrichments were provided, and the time spent using each resource was scored. In general, no behaviours differed in frequency between morning and afternoon registrations, but there were significant differences in the time-budget between day and night and also between day 1 and 7. Fish hid less and displayed more behaviours during the night than during the day, and also after 7 days in the tank compared to at the first day. The exceptions were bottom behaviours which were displayed with the same frequency during day and night and during day 1 and day 7, and hovering, which was unchanged at night from day 1 to day 7. Thus, different behaviours seem to be influenced by light and by the novelty of the surroundings to different degrees. Of the three enrichments included in the study, the hiding place and the inlet current were used most frequently. As far as the authors know, this is the first paper describing the daytime and night time behaviour of parr Atlantic salmon in a research facility in detail.

European wild boars (Sus scrofa) are kept in Swedish enclosures for hunting and meat production purposes. The sows are known to undergo behavioural changes in connection with farrowing and their natural behaviours may be compromised by the limited area of the enclosure. The general aim of this thesis was to provide detailed quantitative data on wild boar sows when farrowing in captivity and to report whether possible needs can be compromised by the limitations of an enclosure. Specifically, it was aimed to provide a quantitative and functional account of the occurrence of infanticide, and its possible relations to welfare of confined wild boars. A field study was carried out in a hunting enclosure, where 1200 hours of behavioural recordings and data from 22 farrowings were collected. The farrowing period could be divided into three phases: pre-farrowing, isolation and sociality phases (in relation to farrowing: day -14 to -1, day 1 to 8, day 9 to 14 respectively). The activity decreased during isolation and increased in the sociality phase. The average distance to other individuals increased during isolation and decreased in the sociality phase. Habitat use changed towards more protective habitats after farrowing (Paper I). Non-maternal infanticide was documented in 14 out of 22 litters. Infanticide, typically performed by an older and larger sow than the mother, caused the deaths of all neonates in all but one affected litters. We found no effect of relatedness. A questionnaire sent to 112 owners of enclosures in Sweden and Finland resulted in 62 responses. Although the owners were often not able to provide exact figures on reproduction and mortality, nonmaternal infanticide was reported to be the most common cause of piglet mortality. The occurrence of infanticide was unrelated to size of enclosure and to variations in husbandry routines. All together results may suggest that non-maternal infanticide is part of the normal behavioural repertoire in wild boars (Paper II). The studies of this thesis reveals the farrowing period as the most dynamic and perhaps most challenging for wild boar sows in enclosures. There are serious welfare concerns in the husbandry of wild boars in Swedish enclosures. The most obvious welfare problem is non-maternal infanticide, where both sows and piglets are assumed to suffer, and where the outcome from the action must be considered unacceptable. If wild boar husbandry shall be equated with other animal husbandry in our society, it needs to be regulated to overcome many of the presented potential welfare problems in this thesis.

The field of applied animal behaviour science has seen significant changes since David Wood-Gush and others began to study the behaviour of domesticated animals in the 1950s. This paper looks at these changes in order to provide a perspective on where the science has come from and where it might be going. Applied behaviour science for much of the Wood-Gush era was primarily interested in the study of the biology of domestic animal behaviour rather than directly in animal welfare. The post-Wood-Gush era has been characterised by an increasing global concern for animal welfare. This has had widespread socio-political effects including a marked shift in funding priorities towards support for research on animal welfare issues. Consequently research output on animal welfare is currently on a steep incline, but there is evidence from literature searches that the contribution of applied animal behaviour science to this output maybe declining probably reflecting in part the wider suite of disciplines (including socio-economics) now contributing to welfare research. Despite the likelihood that there will continue to be demand for research on animal welfare, applied behaviour science should not be complacent over its future. One issue highlighted in this paper is the risk that the focus on applied welfare issues may limit the strategic development of applied behaviour science. This could be particularly detrimental where there is a need to address complex issues such as the development of approaches to assessment of subjective states in animals. It is proposed that International Society for Applied Ethology (ISAE) could help counter these influences by developing a strategic plan for the future of applied behavioural science, and the developments within the science that are required to meet future demands. Examples taken from this paper would be to raise awareness of the potential benefits in integrating the different biological approaches to welfare research, and the need for theoretical and strategic research including a wider use of quantitative modelling. In addition there is a growing need for approaches that link animal welfare with other societal issues in order to better understand the trade-offs between welfare and other concerns. Such a strategy would help focus the applied behaviour science community on meeting future challenges and should help sustain the legacy of David Wood-Gush and the other early pioneers in applied behaviour science into the future.

Many farm, laboratory, zoo and companion animals experience some form of maternal deprivation. This is typically via separation from their mothers earlier than would happen in free-living populations, in some cases even while young are still dependent upon milk. Maternal deprivation may also occur in a qualitative way, via inadequate maternal care, perhaps caused by inexperience or by restrictive environments that limit maternal behaviours. In this paper we review evidence on the link between early separation from the mother and abnormal behaviour from a wide range of sources, including the early primate studies in this field, more recent examples from zoo and commercially reared animals, and human examples from studies of institutionalised children. We discuss factors that seem to influence the magnitude of later effects, such as developmental stage and age at separation, and whether separation is gradual (i.e. more similar to natural separation) or abrupt (as often the case in captivity). In these instances, however, maternal deprivation is just one aspect of a suite of changes that occur when infants are separated from their mothers. In the second part of the paper we therefore review the few cases where maternal loss per se has been investigated, and studies showing lasting affects of qualitative aspects of maternal care. We then look at the possible mechanisms underlying maternal deprivation-induced stereotypic behaviours including potential frustration of specific motivations, and lasting, more pervasive changes for instance in temperament or motor control. Finally, we discuss the practical and welfare implications of the effects of maternal deprivation, and suggest some topics for future research.

The aim of this paper is to provide a discussion about the significance of using a theoretical framework from behavioural ecology in solving problems in applied ethology. The theoretical approach in behavioural ecology involves costs and benefits of behavioural decisions made by an individual of a particular species in one particular environment. Optimality models seek to predict which trade-offs between costs and benefits will give the maximum net benefit to the individual. Game and ecological theories on habitat choice, resource defence and use of space according to resource distribution and competitive abilities are examples of theoretical frameworks that could serve as useful approaches when studying farm animal behaviour. The main differences between wild and domestic species are different selection pressures and environmental constraints. However, there is little evidence that domestication has resulted in loss of behaviours from the species repertoire, that addition of new behaviours has occurred or that farm animals are incapable of making optimal decisions in their environment. In nearly all cases, behavioural differences between wild and domestic stocks are quantitative in character and best explained by differences in response thresholds (differences in frequencies of behavioural components). Except for animals kept on pasture, groups of domestic animals are most commonly kept in a closed space where there is no or little option to leave or modify the environment. Individuals in these groups are not able to choose their flock mates, nor can they manipulate the group size, and resources in the environment are often limited and defendable. Still, the fact that they live in an artificial environment is not in itself an argument against using domestic species as model animals for basic research questions. It is possible to make a similar framework and economical models as the ones used in behavioural ecology that include assumptions fitted to the domestic species and the artificial environment, and the present paper provides some examples of that.

Social dominance is a multidimensional phenomenon occurring in all gregarious farm animals and finds its reflection in a dominance hierarchy. Hence, numerous studies have tried to analyse dominance relationships as well as to correlate outcoming results (mostly individual ranks) with other behavioural and/or physiological features of the animals. Although the concept of dominance, once established, has been developed continuously and several sociometric measures were cumulatively introduced, a consistent analysing approach has not been achieved, especially in farm animals. Thus, considerable inconsistencies in the used methodology may impair obtained results and interpretations. The present paper is a plea for a more standardised and complex approach when analysing dominance relationships, not only in farm animals. First, derived from a structural definition of dominance, we suggest in detail the preferably consistent use of appropriate sociometric measures at all social levels of analysis: the dyad as the starting level, the group as the highest level, and the individual as the basic level. Second, we applied this procedures in a case study to analyse social dominance in a group of dwarf goats ( n =12) and pigs ( n =10), respectively, to comparatively demonstrate benefits and problems of such an approach in two different farm animal species. It is concluded that the use of individual ranks is actually only reasonable when fundamental sociometric measures both at the dyadic level (e.g. percentage of dyads which have a significant asymmetric outcome) and at the group level (e.g. the strength of hierarchy) are successfully tested by statistical methods as also presented in this paper. The calculated sociometric measures deliver not only a more comprehensive “picture” of the social relationships within a group as simple ranks do, but also indicate possible reasons of differences in the behavioural development. For instance, whereas the dwarf goats maintained a quasi-linear dominance hierarchy over time with a high rate of overt agonistic behaviour, pigs after the establishment of their hierarchy showed a reduced agonistic behaviour which makes it questionable to calculate reliable sociometric measures. These species-dependent variations may be primarily caused by different kinds of the fighting behaviour in goats (i.e. ritualised, low costs) and pigs (i.e. more seriously, high costs). Overall, a more consistent and standardised approach of analysing social dominance in (farm) animals may improve the scientific value of single studies and makes it easier to compare various studies within a species and between species.

We assessed the pecking behaviour of caged White Leghorn hens towards feather-shaped stimuli varying in colour (red or blue), material (paper or feather) and movement (stationary or movable) attached to a board placed in the feed trough. Each of the eight stimulus combinations was presented to two replicate groups of 5 young hens for 15 min at 45 and 57 days of age. We predicted that the birds would be especially attracted to red movable feathers simulating a live bird with bloodstained feathers. Severe (forceful) pecks were directed more frequently at feather than paper stimuli (P

A distinction is made between consciousness as a subjective notion and of awareness as a physical notion: consciousness including such things as pleasure and pain, awareness including such things as neurological processes and nerve stimuli. This paper addresses the philosophical problems involved in relating consciousness and awareness. It begins with a brief survey of the history of solutions to the problem. This includes solutions offered by Rene Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Nicolas Malebranche. Next, the paper addresses the current debate. Four contemporary solutions to the problem are discussed: the theory that consciousness can be identified with awareness, the theory that they are functionally equivalent, the dualist theory that consciousness and awareness are two entirely different aspects of the world, and the theory of eliminative materialism: that our talk about consciousness is misguided and will eventually be replaced entirely by the materialist language of awareness. Lastly the paper addresses the issue of consciousness in animals. Two positions are considered which argue that animals are aware but not conscious. J.S. Kennedy argues that it is unlikely as well as methodologically misleading to think of animals as conscious. Peter Carruthers argues that animals may have mental states, but that they are not conscious in the way that humans are. These views are criticized on the basis of empirical work on animal behaviour. In particular, the work of John Webster and Patrick Bateson is used to support the claim that animals are conscious. It is concluded that the question of consciousness among animals is largely philosophical and that the practical questions concern what the needs of animals really are and how they are to be met.

This special issue contains 14 papers addressing the nature of animal sentience and suffering as experienced by the animals themselves and how practitioners in the field can incorporate this understanding to ensure the proper treatment of animals. The simplest definition of animal sentience is "feelings that matter". Therefore sentient animals are those that experience emotions associated with pleasure and suffering and are motivated to promote their evolutionary fitness, not as part of a well-planned, long-term strategy to ensure the well-being of future generations, but through the simpler, but no less intense, need to feel good about themselves. Most of the papers in this issue are comprehensive, fully referenced scientific reviews. However, it also includes a number of short. The papers in this special issue may be categorized under four headings. Section 1 addresses the nature of sentience. Section 2 deals with the study of sentience. Section 3 deals with cognition, communication and higher emotions and presents convincing evidence to illustrate that advanced features of cognition and affect (or emotion) are not unique to humans but widely shared within the animal kingdom. The fourth and last section is on the respect of sentience in farm and working animals, consisting of two comprehensive reviews and two short communications that consider how our scientific understanding of animal sentience may be incorporated into the practice of good animal husbandry.

In “Life in a variable world”, Mike Appleby asserts that environmental stimulation forms a large and infinitely variable continuum. This property is reflected in the organisation of behaviour; Appleby argues that there are no distinct optimal states or ‘needs’ towards which an animal’s behaviour is directed. Animals merely respond towards the range of stimuli available to them, sometimes in adaptive, sometimes in maladaptive fashion. The distinction between natural and artificial environments, and normal and abnormal behaviour, thus loses much of its meaning. Well-being becomes a relative value, emerging out of a complex multiplicity of underlying factors affecting the animal’s behaviour. This would make it impossible to predict with any amount of certainty under which circumstances well-being may or may not arise. Appleby therefore proposes that an external frame of reference is needed to establish desirable features of environmental design. He concludes that cost-benefit analysis may provide the ‘optimal’ logical framework for informed decision-making on problems of animal welfare. The value of this paper is that it puts forward variability and complexity as issues which, in an animal welfare context, need in-depth consideration in their own right. The interaction of animals with their environment, the paper argues, is too multifaceted and complex to warrant a definition of welfare in terms of distinct ‘needs’. Such an argument is timely, given the growing scientific interest in animal cognition and decision-making. It also may positively affect practical issues of environmental design, implying that man-made housing environments, though artificial by definition, could be made sufficiently complex to generate a satisfactory level of welfare. This may stimulate institutions which formerly felt forced to create wildlife safari parks on their premises (with all the accompanying resentment), to take a more constructive attitude in designing appropriate housing systems. Despite my sympathy with the overall theme of the paper, however, I do not agree

A survey of papers published in Zoo Biology between 1989 and 1994 showed that 40% of papers were behavioural studies, but only 35% of these reported basic research. Most papers were authored by zoo researchers (58%), either with or without an academic collaborator. A similar survey of Animal Behaviour in 1993–1994 revealed only three zoo-based studies, even though 160 of the 344 studies published used captive animals. Possible reasons why so few academic researchers study the behaviour of zoo animals are discussed, including the perception that zoo populations are abnormal, the current theoretical emphasis in behavioural biology on functional rather than causal explanations of behaviour, and the methodological difficulties of zoo work. Nevertheless, examples are given of published basic behavioural work undertaken in zoos, and the conclusion drawn that more structured collaboration between zoo and academic researchers is necessary to make full use of zoos' research potential.

The number of published studies which use operant conditioning techniques with farm animals is rapidly increasing. A wide range of journals carry such articles and some of the information is in abstract form only. This paper provides an overview of the scientific work done with cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, dogs and hens and includes a general section where technological reports or papers on operant methods and apparatus designed for farm species are cited. The progress at Ruakura where the operant techniques have been directly applied to a range of on-farm problems is outlined, as are the lessons learned from such work. A bibliography covering the field of practical and theoretical operant papers with farmed species contains references additional to those cited in the overview.