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Anthropologists working on altered states of consciousness (ASC) have suggested that we should do away with psychologizing concepts and use people's own terms for these experiences. With material drawn from the Orang Sakai of Sumatra this paper shows that practitioners who utilize ASC do recognize the alteration of states of awareness as preconditions for numinous interactions. Also critically discussed is the term ASC.

Altered States of Consciousness is an umbrella term applied in the study of psychological, sociological and religious phenomena that are regularly encountered experientially in the study of trance, possession, and shamanism, all of which have complex and problematic links with music. Beginning with trance, and stressing the pervasive sexual imagery invoked, this paper reviews the role ofASC in these three areas in the anthropology of religion.

This is an interview with neurologist Antonio Damasio, MD, PhD, whose work on consciousness has influenced scholars in a variety of fields, including anthropology. Damasio addresses a number of issues, including the neurobiology of altered states, the neurology of flow and other optimal, pleasurable states, and the potential to identify biological markers that are common to the experience of altered states in a variety of cultures. Damasio also discusses the relationship between body and brain, and concludes by discussing the scope of the consciousness problem and contributions to the solution that anthropologists might be well suited to make. Key words: body, consciousness, altered states, interview.

This is an interview with Erika Bourguignon, who has been a presence in the anthropology of consciousness for decades. Her work has examined possession, altered states of consciousness, religion, psychological anthropology, and shamanism. Her own fieldwork in Haiti has been augmented by book-length comparative work with Lenora Greenbaum as well. In a 1996 article in Ethos, Melford Spiro notes that Bourguignon is a scholar who has resisted the trends of "postmodernists and interpretivists" and he describes her as "a preeminent psychological anthropologist as well as the premier anthropological authority on trance, possession, and altered states of consciousness."

In this discussion, attention is focused on the neurophysiological changes recorded in the laboratory during experiences termed religious, since they facilitate contact with the alternate, the sacred reality. The experiences examined are "ritual body posture and ecstatic trance" and "channeling," that is possession. Contrary to previously held opinion based solely on observation, laboratory tests reveal certain differences, indicating that we are dealing with two distinct, albeit closely related, ASC's. Keywords: trance, altered states, channeling, consciousness

This brief overview argues that the evidence of the images themselves, as well as their contexts, suggests that some Franco-Cantabrian Upper Paleolithic cave art was, at least in part, intimately associated with various shamanic practices. Universal features of altered states of consciousness and the deep caves combined to create notions of a subterranean spirit-world that became, amongst other ritual areas, the location of vision quests.

Willow Creek petroglyph site, located in northeastern California represents a long tradition of rock engravings associated with shamanic practices for the Numic groups of hunter/gatherer people, both in prehistoric and historic times. Archaeological evidence shows a continuous occupation for 2,000 years with the protohistoric Northern Paiute culture. Ethnographic data support the use of these caves for vision quests and seeking power. Several interviews with practicing shamans who have experienced entoptic phenomena supply interpretations of these designs. Lewis-Williams and Dowson have proposed that entoptic-like designs found in the entrance chambers of grave tombs in Europe may play a role in the process of achieving altered states of consciousness in prehistoric shamanic practices. Similarities between the engravings found at Willow Creek and those found in Europe support Lewis-Williams and Dowsons theory as relevant to Northern California.

Confusion prevails in the anthropological literature concerning the nature of spirit possession belief and its effects. In large, this is due to the difficulty in differentiating between culture-specific categories of altered states of consciousness and reconciling these to analytical categories. Theories of spirit possession tend either toward description of the culture context without reference to outside theories, thus lacking comparability, or toward application of externally derived categories to the possession behavior, which often lack on-the-ground relevance. Since comparison is the aim of anthropology, we need categories which enable us to accomplish that and still reflect cultural belief. I propose focusing on "ritual states of consciousness" rather than just altered states, which may or may not be spirit possession according to different criteria. This will enable us to retain the culturally relevant categorization while achieving a useful comparability among cultures. I test this idea by analyzing the Spiritual Baptists of St. Vincent and other Caribbean religions.

First, I discuss the importance of recognizing different states of consciousness. Knowing how these states differ from each other and recognizing their specific qualities determines their use, increases our self-knowledge, balances our behavior and adjusts our course of action. Second, 1 report on workshops conducted in the United States, Russia, Lithuania, and Estonia. The examples illustrate the nature of material retrieved during different states of consciousness. Third, I evaluate the respective techniques which can be used to access different states of consciousness and show how they can be applied to everyday life.

There has been a renewed interest in psychology and anthropology in the idea of altered states of consciousness. This paper begins by examining the meaning of this term and the extent to which such experiences are reported globally. The topic of shamanism is then discussed, first with respect to its social functions, and then to what is known about its psychological aspects (which is little). Far more is known about altered states of consciousness (ASCs) as they are expressed in meditation, trance and possession, and channeling, and a number of studies are reviewed, both of individuals and of groups, which illustrate the full extent of ASCs. The following section then goes more deeply into the stimulus situations that are associated with ASCs. This brings the discussion into drugs, attempts at altering the sensorium (music and imagery in particular) and recent technological innovations, peculiar to our time, which deliberately alter our usual state of awareness through feedback principles. In the final section, what is known about the physiology of ASCs is reviewed and also the extent to which these phenomena, including shamanism, are regarded as pathological. As a great number of people across the world utilize the healing aspects of trance, possession and shamanic practices, this aspect is discussed, and lastly the adaptive functions of ASCs are considered, with their context in the history of psychology.

This paper reviews some of the evidence indicating that hallucinogens or psychedelic substances have therapeutic effects. The general character hallucinogen use in non- Western societies is briefly reviewed to present data about the characteristic beliefs and uses associated with these substances. Evidence for therapeutic effectiveness is addressed from several perspectives: the findings from clinical medicine on effects of LSD; a general model of altered states of consciousness, their physiological characteristics, and therapeutic effects; and laboratory studies of physiological, sensory, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive effects of hallucinogens. These findings illuminate the general psychophysiological effects of hallucinogens and their consciousness altering and therapeutic mechanisms.

There exists a variety of types of folk healers in African American society. This paper examines the sequence of dreams and visions whereby a woman realized the status of evangelical healer. "It was hypothesized that these altered states functioned as facilitating mechanisms whereby the subject could alleviate anxiety while at the same time realize a new master status. By gathering extensive interview data and employing a structuralist analysis, it was possible to relate the dreams and visions to personal crises, thus substantiating the hypothesis. In addition to offering processual insight to Anthony Wallaces "mazeway reconstruction,” this analysis provides a fresh perspective from which to examine the recruitment process to the status of "healer.”