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Background: Cross-sectional anatomy is a challenging yet a vital foundation to clinical practice. The traditional teachings of gross anatomy cadaveric dissections do not cover adequate training of recognizing anatomical structures on CT, MRI and sonographic cross-sections. New modern technologies are emerging as teaching tools in anatomy aiming to deliver visual interactive experience. The Visible Human Project provides a library of cross-sectional images compiled from cryosectioned body donors that was utilized by modern technologies such as the virtual dissection table (Anatomage) in constructing 3D software applications visualizing the internal composition of the human body virtually. Hereby, this article explores an integrative approach utilizing the Visible Human Project based applications and basic radiological modalities., Purpose: The purpose of our newly implemented teaching approach was to test and assure technology fitness to the medical curriculum and its potential influence on students' performance in learning gross as well as cross-sectional anatomy in much depth., Basic Procedures: A three years (2021-2024) observational study was conducted by implanting a practical cross-sectional anatomy optional course by selectively utilizing Anatmage interactively beside CT, MRI and ultrasound practice. The performance of 50 participants was evaluated in the form of a written test comprised of labeling of ten cross-sectional images and drawing of two cross-section schemes. Their optional course test scores were compared to their obligatory anatomy subject test scores; and to a non-participants control group of 50 retrospective obligatory anatomy subject test scores. In addition, the participants' attitude toward the training lessons was assessed through a survey focused on satisfaction level, competence and ability to recognize structures on radiological images., Main Findings: The participants reported a high level of practical engagement. The test scores in the anatomy obligatory subject were positively influenced by this implemented practical course. Students showed improved test scores in the standardized labeling keyword questions, while the scheme questions showed discrepancy., Principal Conclusions: Integrating Visible Human Project based applications with radiological modalities showed positive efficacy on the students' engagement and learning performance. Inevitably, cadaveric dissection and prosection remain the cornerstone of gross anatomy education. Integrating both modalities of teaching would excel students' practical skills in applied clinical anatomy., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper, (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: The sural nerve is a somatosensory nerve that provides sensation to the posterolateral aspect of the lower leg and the lateral part of the ankle and foot. Due to its location and anatomical properties, it is often used as an autologous nerve graft. However, the nerve harvest can be complicated by the presence of side branches. The objective of this study was to investigate the anatomy of the sural nerve and to map its side branches. This information can be used to predict the localization of separate incisions during the stair-step incisions technique for nerve harvest, thereby reducing the risk of complications., Methods: The study involved the dissection of 50 adult cadaveric legs (25 left and 25 right) obtained from 27 Central European cadavers. The focus of the dissection was to identify the sural nerve, small saphenous vein, and surrounding anatomical structures. Detailed measurements were taken on the side branches of the sural nerve, tributaries of the small saphenous vein, and their interrelationship., Results: The average number of sural nerve side branches in a single leg was 4.2±1.9. These side branches were categorized into six groups based on their location and course: mediodistal, medioproximal, lateroproximal, laterodistal, medial perpendicular, and lateral perpendicular. Specific patterns of combination of these side branches were also identified and described. The branching point of the sural nerve was found to be 5.8±2.7 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus, whereas the small saphenous vein branching point was located more distally, 4.5 ± 2.8 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus. The highest density of sural nerve side branches was found 2.1-6.0 cm above the lateral malleolus., Conclusion: This study presents valuable data about the relationship between the sural nerve and the surrounding anatomical structures in the distal part of the leg, including the identification of its side branches and their relevance during nerve harvest procedures. On the basis of the most frequent locations of side branches, a three-incision-technique for nerve harvest is proposed., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: In 2008, members of the TEPARG provided first insights into the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe. In 2012, a first update followed. This paper is now the second update on this topic and tries to extend the available information to many more European countries., Methods: For this second update, we have asked authors from all European countries to contribute their national perspectives. By this enquiry, we got many contributions compiled in this paper. When we did not get a personal contribution, one of us (EB) searched the internet for relevant information., Results: Perspectives on the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe., Conclusions: We still see that a clear and rigorous legal framework is still unavailable in several countries. We found national regulations in 18 out of 39 countries; two others have at least federal laws. Several countries accept not only donated bodies but also utilise unclaimed bodies. These findings can guide policymakers in reviewing and updating existing laws and regulations related to body donation and anatomical studies., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (LACN) is a somatosensory nerve coursing in the lateral portion of the forearm. The nerve is located in a close proximity to the cephalic vein (CV) all along its course with a danger of being injured during venipuncture. The LACN also overlaps and communicates with the superficial branch of the radial nerve (SBRN) in the distal forearm and hand, making the awareness of their relationship of great importance in the treatment of neuroma. The aim of the study was to observe the relationship of the LACN to surrounding structures as well as its branching pattern and distribution., Materials and Methods: Ninety-three cadaveric forearms embalmed in formaldehyde were dissected. The relationship of the LACN to surrounding structures was noted and photographed, and distances between the structures were measured with a digital caliper. The cross-sectional relationships of the LACN and SBRN to the CV were described using heatmaps., Results: The emerging point of the LACN was found distally, proximally or at the level of the interepicondylar line (IEL). The LACN branched in 76 cases (81.7 %) into an anterior and posterior branch at mean distance of 47.8 ± 34.2 mm distal to the IEL. The sensory distribution was described according to the relationship of the LACN branches to the medial border of the brachioradialis muscle. The LACN supplying the dorsum of the hand was observed in 39.8 % of cases. The LACN and the SBRN intersected in 86 % of upper limbs with communications noticed in 71 % of forearms. The LACN was stated as the most frequent donor of the communicating branch resulting in neuroma located distal to the communication and being fed from the LACN. The relationship of the LACN and the CV showed that the IEL is the most appropriate place for the venipuncture due to maximal calibers of the CV and deep position of the LACN. The LACN was adjacent to the cubital perforating vein and the radial artery in all cases. The medial border of the brachioradialis muscle was observed less than 1.8 mm from the LACN., Conclusion: The study provides morphological data on the LACN distribution, branching pattern and relationship to surrounding structures in a context of clinical use in different spheres of medicine. The branching pattern of the LACN appears to be more constant compared to data provided by previous authors. We emphasized the meaning of cross-sectional relationship of the LACN to the CV to avoid venipuncture outside the cubital fossa if possible. The posterior branch of the LACN was predicted as appropriate donor of the graft for a digital nerve. The LACN appeared to be in a close proximity within the whole length of the brachioradialis muscle what the orthopedic surgeons must be concerned of. The meaning of the donor-nerve of the communicating branch in neuroma treatment was also introduced., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To systematically assess available information about all variations of obturator vessels and to present the most surgically relevant types, their prevalence and calibre in order to provide a comprehensive overview for both anatomists and clinicians., Materials and Methods: A total of 2689 studies were found via searching the online databases. After applying exclusion criteria 44 studies were assessed. The cadaveric studies, CT angiographies, and clinical studies were included. Number of hemipelves, prevalence of each variation and calibre of identified vessels were studied. Each variation was classified as aberrant obturator artery/vein, aberrant accessory obturator artery/vein or anastomosis., Results: In included studies the average incidence of the variant obturator artery was 26% with the aberrant obturator artery being the most frequent type (with the mean calibre 2.10 mm, SD = 0.35 mm), while the overall incidence of the variant obturator vein was 55%. Presented venous structures had the mean calibre of 2.98 mm (SD = 0.56 mm)., Conclusions: According to reviewed studies, variant obturator vessels are present in a great number of patients. Due to their possible calibre larger than 3 mm they represent a structure of high clinical importance. It is important to unify the terminology and to stress out the significance to all clinicians., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The superficial branch of the radial nerve (SBRN) and the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (LACN) are sensory nerves coursing within the forearm in a close relationship. This high degree of overlap and eventual communication between the nerves is of great surgical importance. The aim of our study is to identify the communication pattern and overlap of the nerves, to localize the position of this communication in relation to a bony landmark, and to specify the most common communication patterns., Materials and Methods: One hundred and two adult formalin-fixed cadaveric forearms from 51 cadavers of Central European origin were meticulously dissected. The SBRN, as well as the LACN, were identified. The morphometric parameters concerning these nerves, as well as their branches and connections, were measured with a digital caliper., Results: We have described the primary (PCB) and secondary communications (SCB) between the SBRN and the LACN and their overlap patterns. One hundred and nine PCBs were found in 75 (73.53%) forearms of 44 (86.27%) cadavers and fourteen SCBs in eleven hands (10.78%) of eight cadavers (15.69%). Anatomical and surgical classifications were created. Anatomically, the PCBs were classified in three different ways concerning: (1) the role of the branch of the SBRN within the connection; (2) the position of the communicating branch to the SBRN; and (3) the position of the LACN branch involved in the communication to the cephalic vein (CV). The mean length and width of the PCBs were 17.12 mm (ranged from 2.33 to 82.96 mm) and 0.73 mm (ranged from 0.14 to 2.01 mm), respectively. The PCB was located proximally to the styloid process of the radius at an average distance of 29.91 mm (ranged from 4.15 to 97.61 mm). Surgical classification is based on the localization of the PCBs to a triangular zone of the SBRN branching. The most frequent branch of the SBRN involved in the communication was the third (66.97%). Due to the frequency and position of the PCB with the third branch of the SBRN, the danger zone was predicted. According to the overlap between the SBRN and the LACN, we have divided 102 forearms into four types: (1) no overlap; (2) present overlap; (3) pseudo-overlap; and (4) both present and pseudo-overlap. Type 4 was the most common., Conclusion: The patterns of communicating branch arrangements appeared to be not just a rare phenomenon or variation, but rather a common situation highlighting clinical importance. Due to the close relationship and connection of these nerves, there is a high probability of simultaneous lesion., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: The subclavius muscle runs underneath the clavicle. However, there have been a few reports of a duplicated subclavius muscle which is commonly referred to as subclavius posticus muscle due to its orientation being posterior to the proper subclavius muscle. Its occurrence seems to potentially create a narrowing interval at the superior thoracic aperture as it crosses over the brachial plexus. It might also have functional influence on the shoulder girdle., Purpose: To provide comprehensive gross anatomy description of the variant "subclavius posticus muscle" and to investigate its reported clinical implications with emphasis on its involvement in causing brachial plexus compression., Basic Procedures: A scoping review with meta-analysis of the gross anatomy of the subclavius posticus muscle was conducted along with investigating its correlation to the thoracic outlet syndrome. Forty-seven articles were pooled through two rounds of the selection process. The relevant information was extracted and meta-analyzed., Main Findings: The scoping review and meta-analysis of the 47 articles revealed a total prevalence of 11/2069 (4.9%); 10/1369 (5.1%) in cadaveric studies, and 1/700 (5.0%) in MRI studies. The subclavius posticus muscle is a short triangular muscle with an average length of 12 cm and an average width of 1 cm. It originates from the sternal end of the first rib in most cases with reported variants of one case originating from the costoclavicular ligament and one case where it was fused with the proper subclavius muscle. Its insertion is more variable: on the superior border of the scapula with variable length in 71.35%, on the coracoid process of the scapula in 25.42%, and on the clavicle in 0.90%. The subclavian nerve seems to be the dominant nerve supply with a 57.6% prevalence, while 25.8% are innervated by the suprascapular nerve. Other reported nerves were the nerve to the myolohyoid (4.5%), accessory phrenic nerve (4.5%), and a direct branch from the brachial plexus (2.0%). The blood supply was reported (only once) to be from the suprascapular artery. However, the venous drainage was not established at all., Principal Conclusions: The subclavius posticus muscle is a variant muscle occurring with a reported overall prevalence of 4.9%. It can compress the brachial plexus as it runs across at the space of the superior thoracic aperture with exquisite contact, and this can lead to a neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome. It also can be involved in the vascular thoracic outlet syndrome. Lastly, it is important not to omit its potential influence in shoulder joint instability to some extent., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Lumbrical muscles of the upper limb belong to the middle group of intrinsic hand muscles. Their anatomical variability has been extensively studied with heterogeneous findings. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide a systematic review and a meta-analysis of the lumbrical muscles variations in the human hand., Methods: For this purpose, four major electronic databases were searched to identify eligible studies. Then, all relevant data were extracted, and statistical analysis performed. A new classification of lumbrical muscles variations is proposed to summarize and clearly define all described findings. We included 26 studies, making a total sample of 1340 dissected hands., Findings: The most common variations for each muscle were an accessory belly for the first lumbrical muscle, a variable origin for the second lumbrical muscle, a variable innervation for the third lumbrical muscle and a variable insertion for the fourth lumbrical muscle with the prevalence 3.8%; 7.7%; 12% and 5.8%, respectively., Conclusions: We believe that results of our statistical analysis are suitable for both hand surgeons and other medical professionals dealing with hand injuries or functional problems in their daily routine., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors state that they have no conflict of interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The anatomy of the brachial plexus has been a subject of interest to many researchers over time resulting in an inconsistent amount of data. Previously, our team had published two evidence-based studies on the anatomical variations involving the brachial plexus, therefore the aim of this study was to analyze the findings regarding the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus with the use of meta-analytic techniques to complete the comprehensive series., Material and Methods: Major scientific databases were extensively searched to compile anatomical studies investigating the morphology of the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus. Extracted data were classified based on our proposed classification system and subsequently analyzed with the use of random effects meta-analysis to state the pooled prevalence estimates of the distinct variation patterns., Results: A total of 75 studies (4772 upper limbs) were selected for the meta-analysis. The branches of the lateral cord, including the lateral pectoral nerve and musculocutaneous nerve, resembled their usual origin in 76.8% (95% CI 50-96%) and 98.8% (95% CI 98-100%), respectively. The medial pectoral nerve, medial brachial cutaneous nerves, medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve and ulnar nerve emerging from the medial cord were observed originating from their usual origins in 90.9% (95% CI 68-100%), 90.7% (95% CI 73-100%), 87.9% (95% CI 67-99%) and 97.7% (95% CI 94-100%), respectively. Lastly, nerves branching from the posterior cord, including the superior and inferior subscapular nerves, thoracodorsal nerve, axillary nerve and radial nerve, originated as per textbook description in 90.7% (95% CI 80-98%), 76.1% (95% CI 61-89%), 90.1% (95% CI 84-95%), 79.8% (95% CI 68-90%) and 99.0% (95% CI 96-100%), respectively. Moreover, the usual origin of the median nerve from the lateral and medial cord via the corresponding roots was encountered in 89.7% (95% CI 84-95%) of cases., Conclusions: The nerves originating from the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus exhibit a wide spectrum of possible origins. However, the usual patterns were significantly the most common types present in more than three quarters of cases. Especially clinicians might profit from the enhanced understanding of the brachial plexus anatomy presented herein, since we offer a strong guide for handling the anatomically challenging pathologies in this specific area., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The brachial plexus is a complex anatomical structure that gives rise to all the nerves of the upper limb. Its variability is frequently observed and represents a challenge for interventions in the lower neck and axilla. The aim of this study was to present a comprehensive and evidence-based review with meta-analytic techniques on the variability of roots, trunks, divisions and cords of the brachial plexus., Materials and Methods: Major medical databases were searched to identify all anatomical studies investigating the variability in the formation of the brachial plexus. Data extracted consisted of demographic information, morphometric parameters, the arrangement of the brachial plexus at the level of the roots, trunks, divisions and cords and the relationship of the brachial plexus to the axillary artery and scalene muscles. The different configurations of the brachial plexus were put into a new classification, and the pooled prevalence of each case was calculated using a random effects model. A sub-analysis on age and geographical location was also performed., Results: A total of 40 studies (3055 upper limbs) were included in the meta-analysis. The regular arrangement of roots forming trunks was identified in 84% (95% CI 79-89%) of cases. The overall prevalence of the prefixed and postfixed brachial plexus was 11% (95% CI 6-17%) and 1% (95% CI 0-1%), respectively and in less than 0.1% of cases the brachial plexus received a branch from both C4 and T2. For divisions forming cords, the regular arrangement was observed in 96% (95% CI 93-98%) of cases. Additional communicating branches between the components of the brachial plexus appeared in 5% (95% CI 3-7%) of cases. The relationship of the brachial plexus to the axillary artery and scalene muscles was considered regular in 96% (95% CI 89-100%) and 86% (95% CI 66-98%) of cases, respectively. Analysis of the morphometric parameters revealed the proportional consistency between the components forming the plexus during aging., Conclusions: Knowledge of anatomical variations of the brachial plexus is important for examinations and interventions in the lower neck and axilla. The variability was observed especially in the roots forming trunks, while divisions forming cords showed quite stable appearance. The results of this evidence-based review and meta-analysis can be applied in many different medical disciplines., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Introduction: The anatomy of the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus is highly variable, therefore the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the various origins of the long thoracic, dorsal scapular, suprascapular and subclavian nerves., Materials and Methods: Major electronic databases were searched to identify all cadaveric studies investigating the morphology of the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus. Data on the origins of these nerves were extracted and classified. A random effects meta-analysis was performed to state the pooled prevalence estimates., Results: A total of 26 studies, constituting a total of 1021 cases, were deemed eligible for inclusion into the meta-analysis. The usual origin of the long thoracic nerve from the C5, C6 and C7 roots was observed in 78.1% (95% CI 69.4-86.7%) of cases and 21.9% (95% CI 13.3-30.6%) had unusual origins. An accessory long thoracic nerve occurred in 0.3% (95% CI 0-0.7%) of cases. The overall prevalence of the dorsal scapular nerve arising from its usual origin the C5 root was found in 85.2% (95% CI 75.7-94.6%) of cases, while 14.8% (95% CI 5.4-24.3%) appeared abnormal. The suprascapular nerve emerged from its usual point on the superior trunk in 89.8% (95% CI 85.1-94.4%) of cases and in 10.2% (95% CI 5.6-14.9%) of cases had a variable origin. An accessory suprascapular nerve was present in 0.2% (95% CI 0-0.6%). Two possible sites of origin of the subclavian nerve were noted and the typical origin from the superior trunk was found in 98.3% (95% CI 96.3-100%) of cases and variable origin from the C5 root in 1.7% (95% CI 0-3.7%). All unusual origins of each nerve were much less common., Conclusions: The nerves emerging from the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus express a wide spectrum of potential origins. Based on their various origins, a new classification system for all the nerves belonging to the supraclavicular part was proposed. Knowledge of these variations and their prevalence data is important to prevent iatrogenic injuries and to state useful landmarks for interventions in the axilla., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Great variability in shape and size of the bony pelvis can be observed in the current population, but there is not enough data on how long the historical period must elapse to gain changes in pelvic shape and size. The aim of the study was to identify morphological changes in bony pelvis in males and females after a developmentally short period of approximately one thousand years., Material and Methods: Seventeen defined external dimensions of pelvic bone from 120 adult individuals (two craniocaudal, two ventrodorsal, six mediolateral, three acetabular dimensions, and four dimension of the auricular surface) were measured. The medieval sample of 60 pelvic bones (30 male and 30 female) was obtained from the Great Moravian site of Mikulčice-Valy (9th-10th century), while the modern collection of 60 pelvic bones (30 male and 30 female) dates from the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Obtained results were evaluated using the independent t-test at a 5% level of significance., Results: A comparison of male and female pelvic dimensions within a single population yielded expected results: the mean male values were greater. In modern population, male pelvis mean values were greater in 15 of defined parameters, while in medieval population, male dimensions were larger in 16 variables. A comparison of modern and medieval female pelvic bones found 11 variables to be greater in medieval sample (one determining the craniocaudal dimension, five the mediolateral, all three the acetabular, and two determining the auricular surface dimensions), but only two were significant (two dimensions determining the mediolateral dimensions). In modern female samples, there were five variables greater (one determining the craniocaudal dimension, one the ventrodorsal, one the mediolateral, and two determining the auricular surface dimensions), but only two were significant as well (one determining the craniocaudal and one the ventrodorsal dimensions). A comparison of male pelvic bones found 13 variables to be greater in medieval pelvis (one determining the craniocaudal dimension, all six the mediolateral, one the ventrodorsal, all three the acetabular, and two determining the auricular surface dimensions), but only four were significant as well (all determining the mediolateral dimensions). In modern male sample, there were only four variables greater (one determining the craniocaudal dimension, one the ventrodorsal, and two determining the auricular surface dimensions), but only one was significant (determining the craniocaudal dimension)., Conclusion: Unexpectedly, our study did not find the early medieval population to have a smaller pelvis compared to the modern population. While pelvic bones of the former were somewhat lower, but wider, those of the latter population were a bit higher and narrower. The study allows a very careful statement that one millennium is a time period long enough for measurable morphological deviations of the pelvic bones shape and size to occur., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

This article offers a concise overview of the history of the study of anatomy and dissection in the Czech lands, now known as the Czech Republic, from the founding of Charles University in 1348 to the present day. The article traces this history in the context of the political changes that occurred over six hundred and seventy-two years, giving emphasis to the history of Prague's anatomy departments, its leading anatomists and their discoveries, and historically important anatomical texts published or written in Prague. The article documents the significant contribution to anatomy made in the Czech lands, especially in the nineteenth century and during the calmer periods of the region's turbulent political history., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: Suprascapular nerve (SN) entrapment syndrome accounts for 1-2% of all shoulder pain. The SN travels within a space between the suprascapular notch (SSN) and the spinoglenoid notch (SGN)., Purpose: To report a detailed topographical study of the suprascapular canal (SSC) and ultimately sort the different types of SN entrapment by its anatomical localization within the canal., Basic Procedures: Observational study on 30 free dissected limbs of formaldehyde-fixed cadavers. The SN and vessels were traced as they passed through the SSC and the boundaries of the SSC were observed and documented. The SSC was then exposed by reflecting away the bordering muscles. Dimensions of the SSC as well as parameters of the SSN and SGN were measured using a digital caliper. Finally, a thorough literature review was made to survey the SN entrapment occurrence by site., Main Findings: The SSC is situated in the spinoglenoid fossa, has an average width of 13 mm, and runs underneath the supraspinatus muscle with an average distance of 25 mm between the SSN and SGN sloping in an infero-postero-lateral direction. The first segment represents the SSC entrance site and is composed of two spaces: osteofibrous and musculofibrous. The second segment is bordered by the supraspinatus muscle fascia, lateral margin of the supraspinous fossa, glenohumeral joint capsule, and the bony surface of the scapula (spinoglenoid fossa). This represents the SSC passage site. The third segment represents the SSC exit site around the spinoacromial arch at the SGN., Principal Conclusions: The SSC is defined as an osteofibrous canal running between the SSN and SGN enclosed by the supraspinatus fascia. It is anatomically composed of three segments: an entrance, a passage, and an exit. The distal SN passes through the SSC via five intervals that correspond to five potential sites of anatomical nerve entrapment: at the pre-entrance site, entrance site, passage site, exit site, and post-exit site. Each of those sites was found to be associated with specific causes and forms of entrapment., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Numerous variations are characteristic for hand anatomy. Although a lot of work has been done in the field, a detailed description of the branches of the radial artery is still missing. The aim of this study is to determine the incidence and diameter of the accessory artery, which can be found running on the dorsal surface of the interosseus dorsalis primus muscle, to deliver the detailed description of this arterial variation and based on that to suggest a systematic name of the artery which would be in line with Terminologia Anatomica., Methods: We used 133 complete donor bodies and 237 cadaverous hands in our study, giving us a total sample size of 503 samples. When possible, we determined the age of the donors which was between 62 and 90 years. We performed detailed anatomical dissection to determine the individual branching. We also measured the diameter of selected arteries. When relevant we performed statistical comparisons. To do that we first applied Shapiro-Wilk test to determine the normality of distribution and after that we used Mann-Whitney U test and One-way ANOVA., Results: The variation of interest was found in 11.93% of cases. Based on the anatomical differences we determined four types of branching, type 1-3 forming the anastomosis with superficial palmar arch (being considered as positive findings) and type 4 which did not form this anastomosis (thus considered to be a negative finding)., Discussion: We successfully determined the incidence of this arterial variation on a sufficient sample size. We also described the anatomy of this branching in detail and were able to determine four types of this branching. After careful consideration of these findings we proposed the new name for this artery and suggest to use the name superficial dorsal branch of radial artery. This could contribute to a better understanding of this branching and potential use in clinical practice., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The vermian fossa (VF 1 ) is a small midline depression at the inferior end of the internal occipital crest (IOC 2 ) near the foramen magnum. This study aims to accurately define the usual arrangement ("the norm") of the inferior end of the internal occipital crest, to determine the prevalence and dimensions of the VF in Central European population, and to state a possible correlation of the VF with anatomical variations and developmental abnormalities., Materials and Methods: We analyzed the prevalence of the VF in 1042 dry skulls. The variable anatomy was classified into either the VF (four categories) or norm. Some rare variations of this region were also encountered., Results: The norm was defined as a flat triangular prominence at the inferior end of the IOC, without any depression. As the most frequent arrangement, the norm appeared in 710 (68.14%) skulls. We observed the fossa in 309 (29.65%), type I in 264 (25.34%), type II in 45 (4.32%) and other rarer variations in 23 (2.21%), skulls, by our new classification system., Conclusion: Despite many different variations can be encountered in the posterior cranial fossa, the proper definition of the usual arrangement at the inferior end of the IOC is still missing. The knowledge of such anatomical variations is essential to decrease the risk of the hemorrhage from dural venous sinuses during surgical approach. Based on prevalence, the underdeveloped posterior cerebellomedullary cistern may occur along with the VF, and their common occurrence seems probable to have a relationship to Chiari malformation type I. As for the terminology, the term median occipital fossa seems to be more appropriate., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The vasa vasorum interna were described during the last decade as a special kind of vessels originating directly from the lumen of the paternal artery and participating in the nourishment of its wall, especially of the aorta and coronary arteries. At the same time, their existence was repeatedly denied/negated by many other authors., Aim: The purpose of the actual study was the anatomical verification of the existence of the vasa vasorum interna in porcine coronary arteries., Materials and Methods: The vascular supply was studied on the wall of the anterior interventricular branch of the left coronary artery on 36 hearts taken from healthy pigs. Light microscopy, vascular injections and scanning electron microscopy were used for the analysis of 141 samples., Results: In only two cases small arteries resembling vasa vasorum interna and originating directly from the lumen of the coronary artery were found. But, in both cases these vessels ran without branching, passed over the whole thickness of adventitia and branched in the wider periarterial space. In contrast to this all feeding arteries of the vasa vasorum arose from the larger branches of the paternal artery, branched entirely in its adventitia and did not enter the media., Conclusion: Due to the very low incidence of these small arteries originating from the lumen of the paternal artery and the absence of their participation on the nourishment of the arterial wall we came to the conclusion that it is not suitable to use the term "vasa vasorum interna" for their designation., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: During the physiological ageing process atrophy of the alveolar bone appears in vertical direction. This bone resorption causes pushing the limits of the maxillary sinus at the expense of a degraded bone. The sinus volume increases due to the facial development in children and adolescents or during the ageing process due to the loss of teeth and bone mass. The main aim of this study is to determine the sinus shape and sinus floor morphology related to age., Materials and Methods: Human adult male and female cadaveric heads (aged 37 to 83 years) with different dental status were used. The three-dimensional CAD/CAM software was used to scan the solid impressions of the maxillary sinus to visualize the real sinus shape and sinus floor. Subsequently, other findings are shown in tables and evaluated graphically., Results: The maxillary sinus morphology, its relationship to the nasal cavity, the sub sinus alveolar bone height, displacement of the lowest and highest points of sinus, and the sinus relationship to the roots of the upper teeth were studied and evaluated. Some septa, crests, and the prominent infraorbital canal were also found in the area of the sinus floor., Conclusions: This paper provides a unique view on the maxillary sinus and its changes during the ageing process with preserved topographical relations in a representative sample of the Slovak population. The visualization of the maxillary sinus anatomy is necessary in the diagnosis and treatment plans for dental implants and during current surgical procedures., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

The article deals with our experience of Terminologia Anatomica (TA) in fields of education (of systemic and topographic anatomy) and clinical medicine (teaching of clinical anatomy and courses for young physicians in endoscopy). The anatomical nomenclature in Latin has been official for 120 years and its latest version for 17 years. Its main weak points should be discussed in public (or at least the discussion should be provoked), which is the reason for publishing the following findings and ensuing proposals. They are classified with seven groups: mistakes in TA, discrepancies in TA, multiplication of terms, synonyms in TA, identical terms for different structures, too long terms and missing terms in TA. The last group comprises missing terms in systemic anatomy, clinical anatomy, a paucity of terms in variant anatomy, in locomotion system and in topographic anatomy. Several attempts to draw attention to these have been made by the publication of inaccuracies in Nomina Anatomica and TA but this article summarizes and reviews current situation, emphasizing the weak points of the TA and brings several proposals and suggestions for further discussion., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the study was a qualitative anatomical analysis of the macroscopic features of the surface of the calcaneal tuberosity, of the architecture of its cancellous bone and histological structure of the whole region. Dry human bones and pathological dissection material 24-36 h post mortem were used in the study. On the tuberosity, the variability of its surface relief and the two borders between the superior, middle and inferior facets were studied. More frequent medial declination of the inferior line, corresponding to the distal circumference of the Achilles tendon attachment, was found. Two systems of expressive condensation of cancellous bone just below the surface of the calcaneal tuberosity were described. In the histological part of the study, the distribution and different thickness of the fibrous cartilage layer covering the attachment region of Achilles tendon, the bottom of retro-calcaneal bursa and the whole surface of the calcaneal tuberosity were described. The functional and clinical relevance of results obtained are evaluated from the point of view of disciplines dealing with the pathology and surgery of the heel region. The relationships of official anatomical terms and a wide spectrum of clinical synonyms designating this region are discussed.