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Nowadays, old-generation pesticides are released into ecosystems alongside new formulations, giving rise to pharmacological interactions (additive, synergistic, and antagonistic effects). The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact that simultaneous exposure to DMT and FLU doses has on bee health. Groups of twenty honeybees were housed in cages to compose six macro-groups. One group consisted of experimental replicates treated orally with a toxic dose of deltamenthrin (DMT 21.6 mg/L); two other groups were subjected to the oral administration of two toxic doses of flupyradifurone (FLU 50 mg/L and FLU 100 mg/L); and two other groups were intoxicated with a combination of the two pesticides (DMT 21.6 + FLU 50 and DMT 21.6 + FLU 100). The consequences of the pesticides’ interactions were highlighted by measuring and comparing data on survival, food consumption, and abnormal behavior. Generally speaking, antagonism between the two pesticides has been demonstrated. The bees were able to survive for up to three days at the lowest dosage of FLU (50 mg/L), with 46% of the subjects still alive; however, the maximum dose (100 mg/L) caused all treated animals to die as early as the second day. When DMT and FLU 50 were administered together, the group that received DMT alone had a lower survival rate. When comparing the survival rates produced by the DMT and FLU 50 combination to those of the group receiving FLU 50 alone, the same was clearly visible. While there was no statistically significant improvement observed when the survival indices of the DMT and FLU 100 combination were compared to those of the group intoxicated with DMT alone, an improvement in survival indices was observed when these were compared with the group intoxicated with FLU 100 alone.

Flupyradifurone (FLU) is a butenolide insecticide that has come onto the market relatively recently. It is used in agriculture to control aphids, psyllids, and whiteflies. Toxicity studies have decreed its low toxicity to honeybees. However, recent research has challenged these claims; oral exposure to the pesticide can lead to behavioral abnormalities and in the worst cases, lethal phenomena. Compounds with antioxidant activity, such as flavonoids and polyphenols, have been shown to protect against the toxic effects of pesticides. The aim of this research was to evaluate the possible protective effect of the bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) against behavioral abnormalities and lethality induced by toxic doses of FLU orally administered to honeybees under laboratory conditions. Honeybees were assigned to experimental groups in which two toxic doses of FLU, 50 mg/L and 100 mg/L were administered. In other replicates, three doses (1, 2 and 5 mg/kg) of the bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) were added to the above toxic doses. In the experimental groups intoxicated with FLU at the highest dose tested, all caged subjects (20 individuals) died within the second day of administration. The survival probability of the groups to which the BPF was added was compared to that of the groups to which only the toxic doses of FLU were administered. The mortality rate in the BPF groups was statistically lower (p < 0.05) than in the intoxicated groups; in addition, a lower percentage of individuals exhibited behavioral abnormalities. According to this research, the ingestion of the BPF attenuates the harmful effects of FLU. Further studies are needed before proposing BPF incorporation into the honeybees’ diet, but there already seem to be beneficial effects associated with its intake.

Parasites, in particular, gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) represent one of the main burdens affecting small ruminant farming and pose a serious threat to their health, welfare, productivity, and reproduction. The correct management of animals and the correct use of anthelmintic drugs are the pillars of the GIN control programs for small ruminants. However, globally due to the indiscriminate use of synthetic anthelmintics, there is a significant increase in anthelmintic resistance phenomena to one or more classes of drugs. Even if such a problem never represented a serious threat in southern Italy because of the favourable environmental conditions and because of the good farm management, the phenomenon is actually showing a steep increasing trend and requires alternative treatment measures and constant monitoring. The use of phytotherapies is considered a valuable alternative approach for GIN control in small ruminants and could help with reducing the amount of synthetic drugs used and the forthcoming anthelmintic resistance. From this perspective, the Calabria territory offers a wide number of plants with anthelmintic efficacy that could be helpful for this purpose. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthelmintic efficacy of aqueous pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) macerate compared to the treatment with Ivermectin and Albendazole in sheep naturally infected with GINs. The pomegranate macerate derives from the ethnoveterinary knowledge of the Calabria region, Southern Italy. The anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated according to the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRt) using the FLOTAC techniques in two sheep farms in Southern Italy. The FECR was calculated from individual samples using the formula FECR = 100 × (1 − [T2/C2]). The treatment with Albendazole in the first farm showed an efficacy of 99.8% after 14 days and 94.8% after 21 days, while the treatment with Ivermectin in the second farm showed an efficacy of 99.9% after 14 days and 96.5% after 21 days of treatment. The pomegranate macerate, in both farms, showed a value of efficacy of around 50% from day 7 to day 21 after the treatment. Previous studies highlighted the presence of gallic acid as the main component in the pomegranate macerate, and its efficacy in nematode control has been as well previously demonstrated in other plant extracts. This in vivo study demonstrated the unequivocal efficacy of plant macerate in easily reducing 50% of the number of GIN eggs in sheep faeces. These results, obtained without the use of synthetic anthelmintics, indicate the use of green veterinary pharmacology as a sustainable alternative to the use of synthetic drugs to reduce the increase in drug resistance phenomena and the environmental impact.