Search

Homosexual behaviour occurs in over 130 species of birds, yet explaining its maintenance in evolutionary terms appears problematic at face value, as such sexual behaviours do not seem in immediate pursuit of reproductive goals. Parental care sexual conflict theory predicts that release from parental care translates to an increased propensity towards polygamous sexual behaviour. We hypothesized that homosexual behaviour(s) may be expected to increase in frequency for the sex that invests less in parental care and potentially enjoys increased mating opportunities. Consistent with our predictions, lower relative contribution to parental care for a particular sex is related to increased frequency of occurrence of homosexual behaviour. For males, highly polygynous species with minimal male parental investment exhibit higher frequencies of male homosexual behaviour, including male–male mounting and especially courtship. In socially monogamous species, male parental investment is greater, and the expression of male homosexual behaviour is lower. Similarly, among pair-bonding species, frequencies of male–male pair bonding increase with decreases in male contribution to care relative to females. When females of socially monogamous species provide less care than males, they exhibit higher frequencies of homosexual behaviour, namely pair bonding and courtship activities. Conversely, when females of polygynous species provide the bulk of parental care, female–female sexual behaviour is infrequently expressed. Homosexual behaviour in birds is more likely to occur under scenarios of enhanced mating opportunity without necessarily influencing reproductive success and thus may exist neutrally, or alternatively provide a behavioural template co-opted for adaptive design.

It is widely established that social alarm signals trigger learning about discrete stimuli present at the same time. Such learning facilitates, for example, acquisition of responses to novel predators and has the functional advantage that individuals avoid exposing themselves to a potentially risky situation. Avoidance of potential danger might equally apply to learning about risky places, but would require social alarm signals to trigger learning about contextual cues, rather than discrete stimuli. Here, we tested this hypothesis by analysing the behaviour of experimental observer Indian mynahs, Acridotheres tristis, both before and after they had watched demonstrator mynahs showing alarm behaviour at a foraging site where observers were accustomed to feeding. To isolate changes specifically attributable to the behaviour of demonstrators, we compared this group's post-training behaviour with that of a control group, which watched social companions foraging at the feeding site. Unexpectedly, we found no evidence that experimental observers became more wary of the feeding site after observational training relative to control observers, suggesting that social alarm signals do not trigger learning about the location in which an alarmed individual is observed. In light of previous work in our laboratory showing that Indian mynahs become more wary in a place in which they have observed a predator attack on a social companion, we suggest that social learning about places may require observation of both social alarm and its cause.