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The relationship between the quantity and quality of scientific output of 120 university physicists was studied. Although these two variables are highly correlated, some physicists produce many papers of little significance and others produce a Jew papers of great significance. The responses of the community of physicists to these distinct patterns of research publication were investigated. Quality of output is more significant than quantity in eliciting recognition through the receipt of awards, appointment to prestigious academic departments, and being widely known to one's colleagues. The reward system operates to encourage creative scientists to be highly productive, to divert the energies of less creative physicists into other channels, and to produce a higher correlation between quantity and quality of output in the top departments than in the weaker departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under certain conditions aggregate-level data provide unbiased estimates of individual-level relationships. Here I present these conditions in the form of a single theoretical decision rule: bias is absent when, and only when, the group mean of the independent variable (I) has no effect on Y, with X controlled. This paper introduces this rule, demonstrates it for the general n-variable case, compares it with prior discussions of cross-level inference, and illustrates it with the 1930 census data used by Robinson (1950). The final section discusses the implications of this rule for the converse type of cross-level inference: the use of individual-level data to estimate aggregate-level relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a study of the scientific output of British University chemists. The relationships between three different aspects of scientists' work (quantity, quality and industrial orientation) were examined, and whilst quantity and quality were highly correlated, industrial orientation appeared to represent a different dimension of research performance. Quality of output was the best Predictor of the recognition received by a chemist from the scientific community (in terms of medals, appointment to advisory committees, etc), his industrial involvement much the least good. It appears that a minority of British university chemists are oriented towards the industrial, rather than the basic research community in terms of their contributions and of their rewards. The influence of institutional affiliation upon recognition, for a given level of output, was examined. As in studies of American scientists, but in contrast to earlier work on British ones, institutional affiliation did appear to influence the recognition received. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper unifies two strands of theoretical method in sociology. On the one hand, the structuralist or network program of research involves the fundamental rule that basic data and analytic procedures of sociology must focus on social relations. This leads to theories about structural stability or change, for example, although the network approach generally has been stronger on technique than on explanatory theory. An interest in theoretical explanation is the basis of the second theoretical method, which is drawn from the expectation states theoretical research program: namely, the idea of a dynamic co-causal process involving an unobservable relational construct termed an expectation state and an observable form of social behavior. The paper outlines the basic ideas of each of these two theoretical methods. It then proposes a new theoretical method which synthesizes the two and whose function is to provide a procedure for constructing explanatory models of social structural stability and change. This new method is termed "E-state structuralism." An extended example is provided of how the method is used to construct a theory, first presenting the theory in axiomatic form and then empirically testing it. The subject matter of the theory is the over-time transformation in the structure of dominance relations among a small group of animals. The paper concludes with a review of how the generic method was exemplified in the particular theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reexamines status attainment models and the recent critiques of this approach from a class-analytic perspective. We argue that both sets of literature represent partial but uncontextualized portrayals of a particular historical configuration of class relations in American society. The paper documents this assertion by demonstrating how American stratification theory and research reflects and expresses the increasing penetration of market relations and instrumental rationality into social relations in an advanced capitalist society. The basic outlines of status attainment, its criticisms, and the historical changes in society that fostered the development of these models are sketched. Finally, historical and conceptual developments are related through the logic of the commodity form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a method for systematically incorporating individuals' perspectives into the analysis of roles and social networks. Using algebraic tools, a set of definitions, procedures, and algorithms collectively entitled "local role analysis" is developed to study and compare relational patterns of individual actors. Local role analysis is then demonstrated using network data on workers' relations in an East African clothing factory undergoing worker-management conflict (Kapferer, 1972). In particular, it is possible to identify who are the leaders in the factory, and to show how the occupants of the leadership roles change over time. These examples suggest that local role analysis offers a practical methodology for studying the interaction between the perspectives of individual actors and the overall structure of roles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores changing patterns of class mobility in the city of Toulouse, France during the middle decades of the nineteenth century. Class categories are used to map out mobility patterns across locations in the social relations of production rather than across locations in status hierarchies. Data on patterns of intergenerational mobility derived from the marriage records of 1830 and 1872 are used to document the rigidity of class boundaries at different points in time, the sources of recruitment for newly emerging working-class positions, and the impact of changes in production relations upon the character and meaning of mobility patterns. Changes in mobility patterns are situated within the historical context of the changing social relations of production that marked the rise of early industrial capitalism. The final section of the paper provides some hypotheses regarding the impact of changing mobility patterns upon the process of class formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the authors' comments on a paper written by researcher Herbert Blumer on social behavior. Blumer's paper exemplifies two of the fundamental problems the authors noted in his methodological perspective. First, he fails to specify the criterion in terms of which he makes the judgment of misrepresentation. Second, he fails to bring systematic evidence to bear on the claims of his hypothesis in relation to some criterion for judgment. The authors examine Blumer's claims about his own ontological, methodological, and theoretical positions, as well as his claims about the authors' misrepresentation. The authors examine his claims in terms of their internal consistency as well as the evidence from researcher George Herbert Mead's writings. Blumer denies he is a "realist" or "Aristotelian essentialist" and proclaims allegiance to Mead's pragmatist position. The terms with which Blumer describes his naturalistic methodology make suspect his denial and his allegiance. The authors conclude Blumer is less confident than they are about applying Mead's methodological perspective to the study of human social behavior.

In this article the author presents his comments on the views given by Seymour Spilerman and Richard E. Miller about his article. The objections that Spilerman and Miller (S&M) raise in their comment are partly the result of misreadings of the Ross M. Stolzenbergs and Ronald D'Amico paper and partly the result of disagreement over methodological and theoretical issues. The race occupation relationship does not vary substantially across SMSAs; the race-SMSA relationship does not vary substantially across occupations; and the occupations SMSA relationship for whites does not differ materially from the occupation SMSA relationship for blacks. The occupational distributions of blacks and whites in different cities can be reproduced with tolerable accuracy from the three pair wise relationships among city, race and occupation. Implication means that stratifying an analysis of the race occupation relationship according to city of residence will, at best, add no information to one's findings, except possibly in the case of anomalous SMSAs. The literature which one criticize is first and foremost a set of stratified analyses in which a summary measure of the race occupation relationship is computed in each SMSA, and then this measure is related to other characteristics of the SMSA.

The empirical and theoretical analysis of intercity variation in black-white occupational differences constitutes a thin but persistent thread running through the last 30 years of sociological literature. At least nine separate statistical analyses have been reported in major sociological journals from 1951 to 1976, starting with Turner's (1951) attempt to test "some hypotheses frequently found in the race relations literature" concerning the relative occupational position of the Negro male in the labor forces of large American cities. This paper reassesses this entire literature on theoretical, methodological and empirical grounds. Our strategy here is to ask some key, underlying questions which never have been considered by earlier empirical studies of city differences in the race-occupation relationship. We find unexpected answers to these questions and these answers lead us to reexamine the dominant methodology of previous studies of the relative occupational standing of blacks and whites in U.S. metropolitan areas. In our methodological reexamination of earlier studies, we ask some additional basic, underlying questions which have not been considered in previous research, and the answers we find enable us to explain exactly how certain methodological conventions in this literature misled earlier researchers. As a further validation of our methodological arguments, and for theoretical reasons developed in this paper, we also investigate intermetropolitan variation in gender differences in occupational distribution. Finally, we draw upon recent theoretical and empirical research on the social evaluation of occupations to derive a theoretical explanation of why sexual differentiation and racial differentiation in the occupational structure does not vary substantially across U.S. metropolitan areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pluralist and interest-group (or modified Marxian) views of society offer two competing sets of hypotheses concerning the relationship between objective and subjective social status and the role of other variables in this relations/tip. Using a 1964 national sample survey of the United States, this paper specifies and examines these hypotheses more fully. Starting with a series of simple formulations, and building up to a fuller multivariate recursive system, the paper concludes that the data are more consistent with the interest-group approach than they are with the pluralist approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Paper resents a definition and typology of "awareness contexts" and offers a paradigm for their study. The paradigm emphasizes the developmental interaction processes deriving from given awareness contexts, and directs attention to transformations of those contexts. The writings of four sociologists are located within the paradigm with respect to the types of awareness context they assume and the segments of the paradigm they treat. Implications of the paradigm for future research and theory are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article introduces research papers included in the December 1954 issue of the journal "American Sociological Review." In this issue fourteen articles are published which place a central emphasis on the nature and consequences of lace-to-lace interaction. These articles, which might ordinarily have been spread through several issues, are collected into a special issue in order to direct attention of members of allied disciplines, like anthropology, and psychology, to the variety and extent of sociology's present commitment in the small group field. Within the ranks of sociology it is hoped that this issue may help to capture the minds and talents of members who have not previously concerned themselves with small group research. There is every prospect that authors of articles in the present issue, with their average age in the low thirties, will for many years be deeply involved in the development and clarification of small group thinking. The case for the study of small groups will be most satisfactorily resolved if their enthusiasm can be sustained, their work criticized, and their ranks increased.

Across various domains of social life, organizational reliance on personal data and exposure to unanticipated financial hardship have transformed Americans' life chances and access to opportunities. This article examines an area where they intersect: the hardship caused by breakdowns in information systems. I focus on the case of identity theft, showing how that event—experienced by tens of millions of Americans annually—contributes to economic insecurity. To do so, I first develop a theory of insecurity that links feelings of precariousness to breaches of trust at three levels: interpersonal, organizational, and systemic. Drawing on an original qualitative study of identity theft resolution, I find that most victims worried about their financial lives because they could no longer count on certain people, organizations, or systems. Beneath this commonality, race and class informed feelings of insecurity and associated coping strategies following identity theft. Low-income people and people of color tended to direct suspicion at personal networks and report ending relationships and informal assistance. In contrast, middle- and upper-income and White individuals disproportionately blamed organizations and demanded their protection. These findings—along with the trust-based theory that helped make them visible—have important implications for the study of insecurity, inequality, and trust in the information age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's response to the criticism of her paper by researcher Charles J. Morgan on paradigms in evolutionary theory. The central aspect of the author's original paper which has aroused the ire of sociobiologists is her concern for the applicability of sociobiological theories to the study of human social behavior. Morgan raises two objections to her summary of sociobiological method, both of which he attributes to a "misunderstanding" of how sociobiologists conduct their inquiries into human social behavior. According to Morgan, the author does not understand the sociobiological view that natural selection produces organisms whose behavior is purposeful. Morgan is incorrect in his presentation of her view. In a reference to maximization, in which she quoted several sociobiologists in order to emphasize their preoccupation with this concept, all quotations referred to individual organisms. These quotations emphasized that natural selection produced organisms who were striving to maximize the number of successful offspring.

Why is human cooperation so prevalent? This paper identifies one potential reason for the prevalence of cooperation in human populations. People acquire social behaviors--cooperative or exploitative--from other people through cultural transmission. There is a previously unrecognized characteristic of cultural transmission--disproportionate prior exposure--that creates an evolutionary force toward cooperation: Individuals who have acquired a cooperative or exploitative behavior through cultural transmission tend disproportionately to have been targets of that behavior prior to acquiring it. Thus, individuals who have acquired cooperative behavior through cultural transmission have disproportionately benefited from the cooperative behavior of others, while individuals who have acquired exploitative behavior through cultural transmission have disproportionately been hurt by the exploitative behavior of others. Because the benefits of being a target of cooperative behavior tend to make a person more influential as a behavioral model (i.e., tend to increase that person's cultural fitness), the disproportionate prior exposure inherent in cultural transmission creates an evolutionary force toward cooperation. A simple formal analysis reveals an evolutionary force toward cooperation under a minimal set of conditions previously believed to make the evolution of cooperation impossible--one-shot prisoner's dilemmas with no option to exit played between strangers in a large, randomly mixing population. Attention to this evolutionary force is likely to advance our understanding of the prevalence of cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social media is increasingly intertwined into people's lives, spurring questions about the relationships between online behavior and offline actions. We advance knowledge in conflict dynamics by using a multiplex network framework that conceptualizes online and offline gang relationships as co-constitutive networks—online and offline relationships often overlap and entangle in complex ways that influence behavior in both the virtual and real worlds. We propose a mixed-methods abductive approach for digital data that uses qualitative analyses to challenge and corroborate quantitative analyses of online gang conflict. Synthesizing data from Facebook posts by alleged gang members, maps of gang territory, and police records of offline shooting events, we show that online gang conflicts are not random attacks but targeted network relationships, and such online relationships are dependent on offline geographic relationships and shooting history relationships between gangs. Our mixed-methods approach further shows via qualitative analyses that the statistical network associations are based on cultural-specific language surrounding gang names and symbols, neighborhood streets, and prominent gang members. Our approach underscores how mixed-methods and qualitative approaches are essential in unpacking "big data" and computational methods in understanding the multiplex nature of group conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The connection between racially prejudiced policing and politics has a long history in the United States. In the current period, police organizations have displayed unprecedented support for Republican presidential candidates, and both have organized against social movements focused on addressing racial disparities in police contact. Yet despite strong connections between law enforcement and party politics, we know almost nothing about the relationship between partisan identity and the behavior of police officers. Using millions of traffic stop records from the Florida Highway Patrol and linked voter records, the present study shows that White Republican officers exhibit a larger racial disparity than White Democratic officers in their propensity to search motorists whom they have stopped. This result is robust to an array of alternative empirical tests and holds across varying sociodemographic contexts. I also find that both White Republican and White Democratic officers grew more biased between 2012 and 2020, a period characterized by the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement and the election of Donald Trump. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work has called into question the "human relations" interpretation of the evidence from the classic Hawthorne studies, arguing that external factors suffice to explain the variation in workers' output found at the Hawthorne plant. In contrast, this paper demonstrates that, allowing for a wide range of other factors mediated by the social interactions in the working group, workers' productivity levels in the Hawthorne plant were indeed interdependent. Using five years of weekly data from the original Hawthorne studies, a structural model of worker productivity is estimated. This model allows for interdependence of workers' output levels, while recognizing that, although mediated by small group interactions, external and experimental variables can also play a role. The results reveal the joint importance of external factors and worker interaction in affecting the level and variability of output. The human relations approach to industrial sociology is not controverted by the original Hawthorne data from which it began. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how the birth of the first child affects the stability of marriages over the short run: it uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of /972. Our results show strong, positive effects of the first birth on the `marital stability of young adults. We estimate that by the time the first child reaches his second birth more than 20 percent of the parents would have been divorced or separated if the child had not been born, compared to actual disruption rates of 5-8 percent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper separates the effects of remarriage and presence of stepchildren on the stability and satisfaction of second marriages. Using a nationwide probability sample of 1,673 married individuals interviewed in 1980 and again in 1983, we show that the higher divorce rate among remarriages is limited to the most complex form of remarriage: where both spouses have been previously married and there are stepchildren in the household. Although remarriages, as marriages, can be just as happy as first marriages, respondents with stepchildren report significantly less satisfaction with their family life than respondents with biological children. in addition to breaking up their families through divorce, stepfamilies are shown to move teenagers out of the home and empty the nest faster than biological families. We conclude that the presence of stepchildren is a destabilizing influence within remarriages and a major contributor to the somewhat greater rate of divorce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource mobilization theorists have nearly abandoned social-psychological analysis of social movements. In this paper a fresh case is made for social psychology. New insights in psychology are combined with resource mobilization theory in an attempt to overcome the weaknesses of traditional social-psychological approaches to social movements. Expectancy-value theory is applied to movement participation anti mobilization. It is assumed that the willingness to participate in a social movement is a function of the perceived costs and benefits of participation. Collective and selective incentives are discussed. Expectations about the behavior of others are introduced as an important expansion of expectancy-value theory to make this framework applicable to movement participation. The theory is applied to mobilization campaigns of the labor movement, and empirically tested in a longitudinal study of a campaign during the 1979 collective negotiations in the Netherlands. Outcomes support the theory. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blau's (1977) theory uses properties of macro social structure to deduce properties of micro social structure, the network of observed social relations among individuals. This paper continues the work of Fararo (1981) in providing a formal linkage between these two levels using the concepts of biased net theory. The application provides versions of Blau's major theorems that uncover implications not readily apparent from his - verbal presentation, permits the extension of his theory beyond characteristics along which preferences for in group association exist to ones along which preferences for outgroup association may exist (and ones even stranger where both preference types may exist), demonstrates the theoretical basis for some negative results of recent research (Blau et al., 1982), and offers a rigorous basis for a general formal theory of social structure's influences on people's associations with one another. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an experimental test of Coleman's theory of social exchange. The theory utilizes information on interest (27 and initial con:to! (C) to make predictions concerning the value of events (V), the resources of persons (R), and the pattern of con- trol at equilibrium (C*). The experimental paradigm, which incorporates three distinct five-event, four-person exchange systems, shows that the theory's predictions are highly accurate for V, R and C*, Competitive goodness-of-fit tests demonstrate that Coleman's theory surpasses alternative theories based on less input information. The findings substantiate previous tests of Coleman's theory conducted on smaller exchange systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past, sociologists have proposed that men and women approach situations in which they have to work with other people differently; that men are "task" or "instrumental" specialists, while women are "social" or "expressive" specialists. Subsequent advances in research on the social psychology of small groups, on families, and on personality has largely removed the theoretical and empirical supports for this proposition. On the other hand, researchers continue to observe sex differences in behavior in a variety of task-oriented situations. This paper suggests that sex roles may be seen as the result of status processes. Since men have higher status than women, men are expected to be more competent than women and it is expected that competitive or dominating behavior is legitimate for men but not for women. Empirical studies of sex roles as related to task appropriateness, group problem solving, conflict, dominating behavior and role expectations are reviewed in support of this theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Controversies over busing to achieve racial integration of schools result front the intersection of social trends and prevailing values. The movement to expand the civil rights of blacks conflicts with the tradition of neighborhood schools and the residential segregation of neighborhoods. This paper examines the receptiveness of whites to school and neighborhood integration and explores the economic potential for residential integration. We find the receptiveness of whites to having black neighbors or having their children attend schools with Negroes has increased, and now a majority of whites endorse such integration. Data from the Census of 1970 reveal that economic factors account for little of the concentration of blacks within central cities, their absence front suburbia or the residential segregation of blacks from whites in either cities or suburbs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the success of the Davis-Leinhardt graph theoretical model in predicting structural trends in a data bank of 742 sociograms from diverse small groups. The model has an over-all success rate of 70%, but two key predictions are not supported. An alternative model is then tested. Its prediction that the sums of pair relations tend toward cluster-ability is supported in 77% of the tests, and its prediction that differences of pair relations tend toward a transitive tournament is supported in 90% of the tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper defines commitment and proposes three types, continuance, cohesion, and control commitment, which bind personality systems to areas of social systems, linking cognitive, cathectic, and evaluative orientations to roles, relationships, and norms, respectively. Two processes underlie the development of each of the three types of commitment: sacrifice and investment support continuance; renunciation and communion support cohesion; and mortification and surrender support control. On the basis of these processes, a large number of commitment mechanisms, or commitment-producing organizational strategies, are set forth. Use of these strategies generally distinguishes success/sd (enduring) and unsuccessful (short-lived) nineteenth century American utopian communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intra-organizational stratification systems may be viewed as a series of social distance patterns "attached" to a set of fixed positions. The focus of the present paper is on the social distance strategies employed in inter-status and intra-status relationships on a psychiatric ward. A patient's position in the status hierarchy, as determined by sociometric choices, is considered a function of (1) her access to prestigeful groups, i.e., staff; (2) her access to the public and private knowledge of prestigeful groups; and (3) the qualitative nature of the contact situation in inter-status relationships. The various social distance strategies result in either status threats or power threats for staff personnel on the ward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous work on the effects of cooperative and competitive settings appears to be completely ambiguous. An examination of these studies suggests that the strength and direction of the effect is strongly influenced by the extent to which the group has an interdependence task. A review of the literature suggests that the results may be generalized to a variety of types of groups. The thesis is put forward that these results may be conceptualized in terms of a balance between two opposing behavior patterns: one oriented to greater individual productivity and one oriented to blocking the productivity of others. This paper reports an experiment confirming the hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article compares the magnitude of relationships of several individual dependent variables with two types of independent variables: (a) individual responses to questions and (b) group averages derived from member's responses to the same questions; and investigates several conditions which affect the results of the above comparisons. The two types of variables are statistically correlated simply because the average is a mathematical function of the individual score. This research paper offers information of use to researchers faced with decisions concerning choice of method of data analysis. Large scale studies which gather data from many individuals in a number of groups are becoming increasingly common as researchers surmount the formidable difficulties in order to obtain variance on organizational and group variables. With data available on both the individual and group levels, there are available a number of analytic designs. For example, group variables may be related to group variables, group variables may be related to individual variables or individual variables may be related to individual variables.

This article has evolved from a preliminary report of a study conducted in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1950. Although the study was originally conceived as applied rather than pure research, the attitude-type scale devised afforded an operational formulation of the anomie concept. This formulation was broader, however, than that specified by Durkheim. This paper benefits from the findings of the New York research, although it is substantively based on the earlier research. The objective of the Springfield study was the measurement and assessment of the impact of a series of ADL card advertisements (anti-discrimination and American Creed messages) that were posted under controlled conditions in vehicles of the public transit system. The applied character of this research imposed a different research design than would have been developed if the study had exclusively focused on the anomie concept. In an exploratory study such as this, caution dictates that the findings be weighed principally on the scale of their suggestive potentialities.

This report derives from preliminary phases of a larger research into the relations of married offspring and their parents, one aspect of which deals with the mutual adjustment of inter-generational pairs. For this latter purpose, it was necessary to construct an index of married offspring-parent adjustment. The data to be presented here were gathered in an attempt to secure information bearing of the reliability and validity of this instrument. The initial section of the paper considers the construction and properties of the index, along with the characteristics of the persons responding to it. Then, findings are reported which relate the adjustment of married offspring to their parents, own and affinal offspring's reported dependence upon parents, offspring's own status as parent or non-parent, age of offspring and length of offspring's marriage. The major portion of the findings concerns the relationship between offspring adjustment to parent and reported dependence upon parent. These data focuses upon a hypothesis which suggests that as a consequence of females being more attached to and dependent upon families of orientation than males, in-law problems in marriage will more frequently involve the wife's parents than the husband's.

This article presents information related to various sociological affairs. The journal "American Sociological Review," plans to publish a special issue on Small Groups Research, as the October, 1954 issue. Fred L. Strodtbeck has consented to act as editor for this number. Papers are solicited from all who are engaged in current research in this field. They may be sent to the Editorial Offices, 116-A Smith Hall, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. William O. Brown, formerly Chief of the Division of African Affairs in the U.S. Department, has been apointed Professor of Sociology in charge of the new African Studies Program. Prior to assuming his active duties in September, Brown spent several months in Europe and Africa surveying the resources for African studies. David R. Mace, Professor of Human Relations, has been invited by the Director of Social Affairs of the South African Government to visit the Union of South Africa in the spring of 1954. The main purpose of his visit will be to help build up the marriage guidance services throughout the Union.

The importance of early parent-child relational patterns for subsequent husband-wife relationship in marriage has been generally accepted in the fields of psychoanalysis, psychology and sociology. In studying the dominant, equalitarian and submissive roles of husband and wife in marriage, the influence of early affectional interaction to parents, therefore, will be taken into consideration. While different disciplines may have different conceptual systems in regard to the relation between early interactions and later marital roles, it seems to be of interest to find out statistically such association in a group of 589 married couples.' This paper will report the results of an investigation on the relation between young couple's conflict-attachment relationship with their own parents before marriage on the one hand, and their dominant-equalitarian-submissive role in marriage on the other. It is assumed that positive associations exist between "presence of conflict" with parents and the dominant role, and between "absence of conflict but presence of attachment" to parents and the equalitarian role in marriage.

The article presents an analysis of effects of the two world wars on the role and status of middle-class women in the English-speaking world. This contemporary disturbance of the feminine role is due in part to the precipitating effects of alternating war and depression upon long-term trends that were already making for a re-casting of the feminine role in western culture. This paper, then, will concern itself with some of the contributing effects of World War I, the Interim Depression Period and the World War II on middle-class women as family members, sexual partners, members of vocational groups and finally as members of community and political organizations. In case of a family role, women have not been sheltered from various kinds of outside competition, but there has been a successful balance of interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, the role and status of women during the world wars is also presented. Thus, a more peaceful era might perhaps provide a milieu in which the roles of women might be more clearly defined, better understood and more stable.

This paper concerning the intelligence of marriage partners adds something to our general knowledge of assortative mating, homogamy, social selection or preferential mating. Such studies have simply sought to determine the amount of similarity of marriage partners in intelligence, as measured by coefficients of correlation or other devices, but they have several implications for sociologists. Preferential mating has some bearing on problems of marital adjustment, supposedly tending to increase marital harmony; it is important for inheritance studies and to eugenics, to the extent that intelligence test performance is accounted for by heredity and it is indirectly related to segregation and class cleavage in society, since people not only to some extent select marriage partners on the basis of similarity of intellectual status, but they also select friends in the same way. The new data available for report at this time consist of 433 marriages of University of Kansas students taking entrance intelligence tests during the period from 1925 to 1938, whose marriages were reported to the Alumni Office. In each case, intelligence scores were available for both husband and wife. During the entire period covered by the study, tests officially accepted by the American Council on Education were employed.

Sociometry is an axis with two poles. The arm towards one pole is directed towards the discovery of the deeper levels of society's structure. The other is directed towards promoting change of society based upon the dynamic facts found in its structure. Since one cannot anticipate the structure of society, the sociometrist must be an experimental realist and plunge into the task of uncovering the actually functioning structures in which people relate themselves to one another. It is an unavoidable task, yet one surely worth the effort, if one ever gain control over social processes in which one participates and to which the destiny not only of oneself as individuals is bound up, but also the destiny of man as a species if he is to better his lot and build a harmonious society. Social process is used in this paper to define the temporal development of interpersonal relationships as contrasted with structure, which is herein used to designate the spatial facts of such relationships. Social process is the way by which structure comes to exist. In contrast to structure, which may be conceived spatially, social process is the manner by which sociation occurs, develops and results in structure, the psychosocial organization of relationships maintaining between individuals.

The present paper reports a portion of a study which, like numerous others in this field, utilized data obtained from college students, but which allowed certain types of comparisons not possible, so far as the writer knows, in other studies. A study of college and university students' ideals of marriage and family life was first made in 1929 as a part of a larger study of population mobility. A questionnaire, the pertinent portions of which are herewith given, was presented to the entire student body of each of two small denominational colleges (one Presbyterian and one Methodist Episcopal) in Iowa and to some two hundred students in the sociology classes at the University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. In 1936, those phases of the study here reported were repeated with the corresponding student groups currently enrolled, the cross-sectional pictures thus obtained presumably furnishing certain clues to the degree and direction of social change both on the college campus and in the wider culture.

This article discusses the relation between mobility and family disorganization. Mobility is significantly, although indirectly, related to the disorganization of the individual family and to the disorganization of family folkways and mores. While mobility also has organizing effects, this paper is concentrated on the disorganization of the family. The tentative propositions which are stated have emerged in part from general reading and thought on the subject and in part from a study which the author is making of the factors in the marital adjustment of divorced couples in comparison with married couples. However, disorganization of the individual family and the mobility of city life are closely associated and this article raises the additional question as to the specific ways in which mobility is associated with the disorganization of the individual family. Four possible relationships are discussed in this article. It is observed that in the case of husbands and wives, an extended absence from each other during the first few months of married life is not as disorganizing to familial relationships as it is at a later period.

Remarriage as a means of rectifying a mistake in divorce has been given less attention. Instances of such remarriage are commoner than is sometimes supposed. The author's attention was drawn to the subject by a number of clients of the Institute of Family Relations who got divorces, afterwards decided that they were happier together than they were apart, and remarried each other successfully. This paper reports on 200 such cases. Some of these are decidedly complicated, various other marriages having served to embroider the main pattern. Of the 200 cases here reported of remarriage of the same persons, 96 were happy on the second attempt; 29 were doubtful and 75 definitely unhappy. The mean length of first marriage was 5.1 years, nearly one third lasted less than two years, while nearly one fourth were of at least ten years' duration before the divorce. There is very little relationship between the length of marriage prior to divorce and the length of intermission prior to remarriage. A short marriage may be followed by long separation or vice versa. One might suppose that those longest married would require the shortest time to discover that their divorce was a mistake; that there would be, in other words, a negative correlation between first marriage and intermission. This is not found. The correlation is positive, though small.

This article focuses on factor analysis as a technique of social research. If it is supposed that there are ten numerical data on each of one thousand individuals, this gives ten thousand different numbers with which to deal and in spite of the simplification introduced, the mass of data has become very unwieldy. It is therefore attempted to simplify matters by calculating all the 45 possible intercorrelations between these ten variables. Since even this simplification may leave one unsatisfied especially if the number of variables is large, the final step is to perform factor analysis. By applying the method of factor analysis, the ten variables, with their intercorrelations are reduced still more. For example, four factors with their intercorrelations are observed and these four factors are considered a satisfactory substitute for the original ten variables. The process of simplification involves the formation of three constructs. It starts with an indefinitely large number of distinguishably separate acts of social behavior. It is approximated by a construct which consists of number of quantitative measurements, say, in the ten thousand scores of one thousand individuals on ten measurements.

This article presents the authors views on the issues of social problems. The paper stresses the role of values in defining situations and behavior as problems and in obstructing their solution, but it does not discuss the role of values in producing the situation defined as problematical. Indeed, the paper conveys the impression that there is behavior and situations on the one hand and values that they threaten on the other. Social problems are products of a dynamic society in which behavior changes more readily than the values that define it. This quotation, for me, is almost meaningless. All social action the goals to which it is oriented and the means employed is itself, in part, determined by the actor's values. What "changes" is not an autonomously evolving "behavior," but some aspect of the value system itself. Recognition of this fact shifts the stress from conflicts between behavior and values to conflicts within the value system, and it tends to shift the direction of inquiry to the determinants of values themselves and to inter-relationships among values. Professor Francis E. Merrill has rightly indicated the role of values in blocking solutions to social problems.

Status hierarchies are fundamental forms of social order that structure peer interactions like intragroup aggression. The reciprocal relationship, however, remains unclear. Does intragroup aggression strengthen, or weaken, status hierarchies? Under what conditions? To answer these questions, I analyze an original dataset containing victimization and directed friendship networks of 8,229 adolescents across 256 classes and three semesters. Measuring the strength of status hierarchies by how likely friendship nominations are characterized by hierarchical triads, I show that peer aggression weakens status hierarchies, and temporal sequences indicate the results are unlikely to be explained by reverse causality. I theorize that clear status hierarchies emerge through coordinated reallocations of esteem, and peer aggression engenders hierarchy primarily by giving onlookers shared opportunities to coordinate. Peer aggression, however, is frequently ambiguous, and onlookers arrive at inconsistent interpretations, fragmenting how they assign esteem and reducing the clarity of status distinctions. Additional analyses confirm that whether peer aggression strengthens or weakens status hierarchies depends on the consistent perceptions of onlookers. Taken together, this research demonstrates the significance of third-party onlookers and their ability to consistently interpret interactions, while offering new explanations for when peer aggression is self-limiting or persistent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We argue that cross-national variability in homicide rates is strongly influenced by state history. Populations living within a state are habituated, over time, to settling conflicts through regularized, institutional channels rather than personal violence. Because these are gradual and long-term processes, present-day countries composed of citizens whose ancestors experienced a degree of "state-ness" in previous centuries should experience fewer homicides today. To test this proposition, we adopt an ancestry-adjusted measure of state history that extends back to 0 CE. Cross-country analyses show a sizeable and robust relationship between this index and lower homicide rates. The result holds when using various measures of state history and homicide rates, sets of controls, samples, and estimators. We also find indicative evidence that state history relates to present levels of other forms of personal violence. Tests of plausible mechanisms suggest state history is linked to homicide rates via the law-abidingness of citizens. We find less support for alternative channels such as economic development or current state capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objects of risk mitigation are typically viewed as neutral items that limit exposure to an established hazard. However, people may refuse to adopt such tools, even when they feel vulnerable. This article explores how people assess their personal risk and mitigation options by examining PrEP use for HIV prevention. Drawing on semi-structured in-depth interviews with 40 Black and Latino gay, bisexual, and queer men, I argue PrEP uptake is a socially contextualized decision influenced by relational concerns. I develop the concept of relational inoculation, wherein individuals enact a sense of protection against harm through relational work. As individuals consider PrEP, they also contemplate how it may bolster or undermine intimacy they value for reducing interpersonal HIV exposure, as well as dispelling stigmatized notions of riskiness held by their intersecting ethno-racial and sexual minority communities. I develop testable propositions about how respondents' HIV risk assessments and PrEP use are enmeshed in a societal context of surveillance, in ongoing relations with intimate partners and socially significant others, and in navigation of community belonging within this milieu of risk. This article contributes to sociological research at the nexus of race, sexuality, and health, and offers health policy insight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although research workers have often speculated on the possibility of using quantitative methods to test the validity of psychoanalytic theories, few have undertaken such studies. Since the emphasis in Professor Robert F. Winch's present paper has been upon findings relating degree of courtship behavior to social and psychological background factors, the results can be evaluated primarily within the framework of socio-psychological and statistical theory. This is interesting that these findings are so largely in accord with what would have been anticipated, had one postulated that culturally-contained family types operate as determinants of courtship behavior. The author's disavowal that such a postulate was made at the outset of the study strengthens the confidence one can place in the validity of the pattern evident in his findings. Examination of the data of correlation coefficients reveals that most of these values are not statistically significant, and that the significant coefficients are for the most part low.

Churches have long been sites of local charity work as well as national political movements. What happens when people engage in more individualistic forms of spirituality, like mindfulness meditation or yoga, rather than participate in religious communities? Might the rise of individualized forms of spirituality lead to a decline in political engagement? Or, among people averse to religion, might spiritual practice operate as a substitute, and potentially contribute to political engagement? Drawing on burgeoning theory of religion and spirituality as socially-situated boundary objects, we use data from the 2020 National Religion and Spirituality Survey to examine the relationship between self-reported spiritual and religious practices and political engagement. First, we investigate whether study participants distinguish spiritual and religious practice as distinct concepts through factor analysis. Next, we use those results to examine the association between these practices and reports of political behavior. We find a consistent, positive relationship between spiritual practice and political engagement of comparable magnitude to that of religious practices. Notably, during an era of heightened political polarization around religious engagement, political progressives, respondents of color, and members of the LGBT community are more likely to report spiritual rather than religious practices. This points us to a theory of spiritual practice as a substitute for religious engagement among groups alienated from religious institutions, with the former capable of fostering similar proclivities for political action as the latter. Our results suggest critiques of a "selfish" spirituality have been overblown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper shows how the social structuring of activity leads people to develop relationships with others who are similar to themselves. Most relationships originate in foci of activity that bring together disproportionately homogeneous sets of people. The more homogeneous these sets of people are, the more relationships tend to be with similar others. A sample survey and a study of friendships in one large factory illustrate the importance of the social structuring of activity for age similarity. It is suggested that the neglect of structural factors has led to the overestimation of the extent to which people "prefer' to associate with similar others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general symbol manipulating capacities of the modern digital computer offer a valuable tool for theory development and verification. Diverse applications of computer models in Social Science are discussed, along with a validation study involving HOMUNCULUS, a Computer model of social behavior. Hypotheses concerning decision making in a role-conflict dilemma Were stated operationally as computer routines compatible with HOMUNCULUS. In computer runs using input data from actual questionnaires, alternative formulations regarding role conflict resolution were tested. Since the data generated by each run represented the logical consequences of the hypotheses operating in that run, it was possible to assess the adequacy of each programmed formulation by comparing the simulated responses with the actual decisions of living respondents. Such flexibility and dynamic capacity are major benefits accruing from testing a social theory through computer simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]