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Circadian rhythms of animals are reset by exposure to light as well as dark; however, although the parameters of photic entrainment are well characterized, the phase-shifting actions of dark pulses are poorly understood. Here, we determined the tonic and phasic effects of short (0.25 h), moderate (3 h), and long (6–9 h) duration dark pulses on the wheel-running rhythms of hamsters in constant light. Moderate- and long-duration dark pulses phase dependently reset behavioral rhythms, and the magnitude of these phase shifts increased as a function of the duration of the dark pulse. In contrast, the 0.25-h dark pulses failed to evoke consistent effects at any circadian phase tested. Interestingly, moderate- and long-dark pulses elevated locomotor activity (wheel-running) on the day of treatment. This induced wheel-running was highly correlated with phase shift magnitude when the pulse was given during the subjective day. This, together with the finding that animals pulsed during the subjective day are behaviorally active throughout the pulse, suggests that both locomotor activity and behavioral activation play an important role in the phase-resetting actions of dark pulses. We also found that the robustness of the wheel-running rhythm was weakened, and the amount of wheel-running decreased on the days after exposure to dark pulses; these effects were dependent on pulse duration. In summary, similarly to light, the resetting actions of dark pulses are dependent on both circadian phase and stimulus duration. However, dark pulses appear more complex stimuli, with both photic and nonphotic resetting properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although light is considered the primary entrainer of circadian rhythms in humans, nonphotic stimuli, including exercise and melatonin also phase shift the biological clock. Furthermore, in birds and nonhuman mammals, auditory stimuli are effective zeitgebers. This study investigated whether a nonphotic auditory stimulus phase shifts human circadian rhythms. Ten subjects (5 men and 5 women, ages 18–72, mean age ± SD, 44.7 ± 21.4 yr) completed two 4-day laboratory sessions in constant dim light (<20 lux). They received two consecutive presentations of either a 2-h auditory or control stimulus from 0100 to 0300 on the second and third nights (presentation order of the stimulus and control was counterbalanced). Core body temperature (CBT) was collected and stored in 2-rain bins throughout the study and salivary melatonin was obtained every 30 min from 1900 to 2330 on the baseline and poststimulus/postcontrol nights. Circadian phase of dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) and of CBT minimum, before and after auditory or control presentation was assessed. The auditory stimulus produced significantly larger phase delays of the circadian melatonin (mean ± SD, -0.89 ± 0.40 h vs. -0.27 ± 0.16 h) and CBT (-1.16 ± 0.69 h vs. -0.44 ± 0.27 h) rhythms than the control. Phase changes for the two circadian rhythms also positively correlated, indicating direct effects on the biological clock. In addition, the auditory stimulus significantly decreased fatigue compared with the control. This study is the first demonstration of an auditory stimulus phase-shifting circadian rhythms in humans, with shifts similar in size and direction to those of other nonphotic stimuli presented during the early subjective night. This novel stimulus may be a useful countermeasure to facilitate circadian adaptation after transmeridian travel or shift work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]