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Objective: Immune function is multifaceted and characterizations based on single biomarkers may be uninformative or misleading, particularly when considered across ecological contexts. However, measuring the many facets of immunity in the field can be challenging, since many measures cannot be obtained on‐site, necessitating sample preservation and transport. Here we assess state‐of‐the‐art methods for measuring immunity, focusing on measures that require a minimal blood sample obtained from a finger prick, which can be: (1) dried on filter paper, (2) frozen in liquid nitrogen, or (3) stabilized with chemical reagents. Results: We review immune measures that can be obtained from point‐of‐care devices or from immunoassays of dried blood spots (DBSs), field methods for flow cytometry, the use of RNA or DNA sequencing and quantification, and the application of immune activation assays under field conditions. Conclusions: Stable protein products, such as immunoglobulins and C‐reactive protein are reliably measured in DBSs. Because less stable proteins, such as cytokines, may be problematic to measure even in fresh blood, mRNA from stabilized blood may provide a cleaner measure of cytokine and broader immune‐related gene expression. Gene methylation assays or mRNA sequencing also allow for the quantification of many other parameters, including the inference of leukocyte subsets, though with less accuracy than with flow cytometry. Combining these techniques provides an improvement over single‐marker studies, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of how social and ecological variables are linked to immune measures and disease risk in diverse populations and settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field of human biology has long explored how human populations have adapted to extreme environmental circumstances. Yet, it has become increasingly clear that conditions of social stress, poverty, and lifestyle change play equally important roles in shaping human biological variation and health. In this paper, I provide a brief background on the foundational human adaptability research of the International Biological Programme (IBP) from the 1960s, highlighting how its successes and critiques have shaped current research directions in the field. I then discuss and reflect on my own field research that has examined the influence of both environmental and social stresses on human populations living in different ecosystems: the Peruvian Andes, the Siberian arctic, and the Bolivian rainforest. Finally, I consider how the papers in this special issue advance our understanding of human adaptability to extreme conditions and offer directions for future research. Drawing on our field's distinctive evolutionary and biocultural perspectives, human biologists are uniquely positioned to examine how the interplay between social and ecological domains influences the human condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Methods Results Conclusion This paper examines the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) using a multivariate multilevel approach and investigates the links between individual and school‐related correlates with children's BMI and CRF.This cross‐sectional sample included 1014 children (6–10 years) from 25 Portuguese primary schools. BMI was calculated, and CRF was assessed with the PACER test. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) included five object control tasks. Moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity (MVPA), sleep, and sedentary time were assessed with the ActiGraph wGT3X‐BT accelerometer. Socioeconomic status (SES) and school variables were also obtained. A multivariate multilevel model was used, and alpha was set at 5%.BMI and CRF systematically increased with age. Most of the joint variance (94.4%) was explained at the child level, and BMI and CRF were correlated at this level (ρ = −.37). More active children demonstrated higher CRF levels and had lower BMI levels; sedentary and sleep time were not significantly associated with BMI or CRF. FMS were positively associated with CRF but were not significantly associated with BMI. Children at higher SES were more fit and had lower BMI than their peers of lower SES. Finally, school‐level variables were not significantly related to BMI and CRF.BMI and CRF had a low but statistically significant negative correlation in this sample of children. Most of the variation in BMI and CRF was explained by child‐level characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the impact of livelihood strategies and place on mental well‐being. Identifying different socioeconomic factors that impact mental well‐being across contexts is pressing given the global rise in mental health disorders. Numerous studies in the population and social sciences have emphasized the protective role of material wealth on human health and well‐being; however, scholars frequently assess wealth as a one‐dimensional variable, which may fail to capture diverse forms of wealth. Acknowledging different forms of wealth may be particularly important in settings where agricultural economies coexist with cash economies. Using data from the 2013 Namibia Demographic Health Survey (n = 13 377), we use a newly developed measure of success in agricultural activities, an agricultural wealth index, or AWI, generated by Hackman et al., (2021). To examine the role of different forms of wealth on mental health symptoms. We find mental well‐being, assessed through three survey questions, is lower among urban dwellers and females and shows varied associations with wealth type and sex/gender. In general, success in agricultural activities is associated with better mental well‐being, while the association with market success is null or and conditional upon sex/gender and place. This study adds to recent work on the value of using multidimensional measures of wealth and raises important questions about why wealth type and sex/gender differentially impact mental well‐being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Immunoglobulin A dominates mucosal surfaces and is a biomarker of interest in populations with a high disease burden. The objectives of this work are to describe an ELISA for IgA and test the stability of storage on filter paper for human milk and saliva collection to be used in remote field locations. Methods: A two-site sandwich ELISA for IgA was developed. To test filter paper storage capabilities under field conditions, 248 matched whole and dried human milk filter paper samples and 251 matched whole and dried saliva samples were collected from northern Kenyan women. Whole samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen while dried samples were stored at ambient temperature for up to 8 weeks. Recovered dried IgA levels were compared to whole IgA levels and adjusted for time stored at ambient temperature. Results: The lower limit of quantification for this assay is 10.1 ng/ml. Linearity of dilution for human milk and saliva samples was excellent. High and low-control coefficient of variation values across plates were 9.1 (341.8 ng/ml) and 9.4% (132.5 ng/ml). IgA was detected in all whole and dried samples. There is a moderate concordance between dried and whole samples ( R2 = 0.62). There is a small but significant effect of time stored, with a loss of ∼1 μg/ml per day ( P = 0.0052). Conclusions: This IgA assay is a cost-effective alternative to commercial secretory IgA kits. Human milk and saliva can be stored on filter paper for up to 8 weeks. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2011. © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Porous lesions of the orbit (cribra orbitalia [CO]) and cranial vault (porotic hyperostosis [PH]) are used as skeletal indicators of childhood stress. Because they are understudied in contemporary populations, their relationship to disease experience is poorly understood. This paper examines the relationship between length of childhood illness and CO/PH formation in a clinically documented sample. "Turning points," which identify the window for lesion formation for CO/PH, are defined, implications for hidden heterogeneity in frailty are considered. Methods: Data are from 333 (199 males; 134 females) pediatric postmortem computed tomography scans. Individuals died in New Mexico (2011–2019) and are 0.5 to 15.99 years (mean = 7.1). Length of illness was estimated using information from autopsy and field reports. Logistic regression was used to estimate predicted probabilities, odds ratios, and the temporal window for lesion formation. Results: Illness, single bouts, or cumulative episodes lasting over 1 month is associated with higher odds of CO; individuals who were never sick have lower odds of having PH. This relationship was consistent for fatal and incidental illnesses that did not cause death. The developmental window for CO formation appears to close at 8 years. Conclusions: Those ill for over 1 month are more likely to have CO/PH than those with acute illnesses. Some individuals lived sufficiently long to form CO/PH but died of illness. Others with lesions died of circumstances unrelated to disease. This indicates hidden variation in robusticity even among ill individuals with CO/PH, which is vital in interpreting lesion frequencies in the archeological record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past several decades, biomarkers have become indispensable tools in human biology, allowing researchers to investigate biocultural and evolutionary questions and to generate basic data on health and well‐being. Human biologists are central players in biomarker methods development, pioneering the creation of "field friendly," minimally invasively collected biomarker approaches, as well as leading the innovative use of biomarkers, most notably to map the complex pathways from social and environmental conditions to altered physiology to health effects. This special issue, Part 2 of a collection focused on minimally invasively collected biomarkers, is comprised of nine papers that jointly contribute to driving the science of biomarker methods development and application. This compilation of papers engages with topics such as biological normalcy, ecoimmunology, and the ethics of working with vulnerable and underserved populations. It also focuses attention on research areas at present not emphasized in human biology such as bone turnover markers as a window onto osteoporosis and osteoarthritis and the use of cancer‐related biomarkers in population screening and epidemiology. Taken together, these papers help draw the roadmap for future biomarker work, emphasizing: (1) the need for systematic and transparent approaches to assay validation, with open access publication; (2) simultaneous measurement of multiple biomarkers and expanded use of instrument platforms that increase the range of physiological, genomics, and omics markers available to researchers; and, (3) increased attention to ethics and researcher responsibilities, encouraging a mindset that recognizes our obligation to provide benefits to individuals and communities and to help redress past abuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To validate use of chip-based immunoaffinity capillary electrophoresis on dried blood spot samples (DBSS) to measure obesity-related hormones. Methods: Chip-based immunoaffinity capillary electrophoresis was used to measure adiponectin, leptin and insulin in capillary serum and DBSS in pregnant women and infant heelstick at birth and six weeks. Concordance of measurements was determined with Pearson's correlation and Bland-Altman plots. Results: We report high concordance between results obtained from serum and DBSS. Conclusions: Ease of sample collection and storage makes DBSS an optimal method for use in studies involving neonates and young children, as well as studies conducted in areas where freezer storage is not available. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2011. © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Many parents swaddle their infants to promote sleep and reduce night‐waking, however lack of definitive evidence about the pros and cons of swaddling when breastfeeding hinders postnatal recommendations regarding this infant care practice. This review critically examines research conducted on the impact of swaddling upon breastfeeding. Methods: Only two recent studies on swaddling outcomes have reported infant feed‐type, therefore the purpose of this paper is to consider the known effects of swaddling on breastfeeding babies and their mothers. We interpret the existing literature on swaddling in terms of impact on breastfeeding physiology and behaviour during the immediate post‐natal period, and as infancy progresses. Results: Infants swaddled immediately after birth show a delay in initial breastfeeding, less successful suckling at the breast, reduced intake of breastmilk and greater weight loss compared to un‐swaddled babies. Swaddling visually obscures feeding cues and reduces crying, thereby eliminating two key feeding prompts typically used by parents/carers. Conclusions: As swaddled babies cry less, and are fed less frequently than un‐swaddled babies some clinical trials position swaddling as a 'novel weight regulation tool' to combat obesity. However, in the case of breastfed babies, by reducing feed frequency swaddling may impede maternal milk production and thereby infant growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India's indigenous communities represent 8% of the total population and 25% of them are listed as the most impoverished (Government of India, 2011). The COVID-19 pandemic has already infected over 70 000 indigenous people with 2000 deaths (WHO, 2020). A quick search of the word "COVID-19" in Web of Science database for 2020 has yielded 41 798 papers and when the phrase "COVID-19 indigenous people" was used, it yielded only 38 papers. Likewise in March 2020, the Chhattisgarh state government reported only six COVID-19 cases (Raju, 2020). [Extracted from the article]

Across populations, human morbidity and mortality risks generally follow clear gradients, with socially‐disadvantaged individuals and groups tending to have higher morbidity and mortality at all life stages relative to those more socially advantaged. Anthropologists specialize in understanding the proximate and ultimate factors that shape variation in human biological functioning and health and are therefore well‐situated to explore the relationships between social position and health in diverse ecological and cultural contexts. While human biologists have developed sophisticated methods for assessing health using minimally‐invasive methods, at a disciplinary level, we have room for conceptual and methodological improvement in how we frame, measure, and analyze the social inequities that might shape health inequities. This toolkit paper elaborates on some steps human biologists should take to enhance the quality of our research on health inequities. Specifically, we address: (1) how to frame unequal health outcomes (i.e., inequalities vs. disparities vs. inequities) and the importance of identifying our conceptual models of how these inequities emerge; (2) how to measure various axes of social inequities across diverse cultural contexts, and (3) approaches to community collaboration and dissemination. We end by discussing (4) future directions in human biology research of health inequities, including understanding the ultimate causes of sensitivity to social inequities and transitioning from research to action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The use of minimally invasive biomarkers (MIBs – physiological biomarkers obtained from minimally invasive sample types) has expanded rapidly in science and medicine over the past several decades. The MIB approach is a methodological strength in the field of human and non‐human primate evolutionary biology (HEB). Among humans and our closest relatives, MIBs provide unique opportunities to document phenotypic variation and to operationalize evolutionary hypotheses. Aims: This paper overviews the use of MIBs in HEB. Our objectives are to (1) highlight key research topics which successfully implement MIBs, (2) identify promising yet under‐investigated areas of MIB application, and (3) discuss current challenges in MIB research, with suggestions for advancing the field. Discussion and Conclusions: A range of MIBs are used to investigate focal topics in HEB, including energetics and life history variation/evolution, developmental plasticity, and social status and dominance relationships. Nonetheless, we identify gaps in existing MIB research on traits such as physical growth and gut function that are central to the field. Several challenges remain for HEB research using MIBs, including the need for additional biomarkers and methods of assessment, robust validations, and approaches that are standardized across labs and research groups. Importantly, researchers must provide better support for adaptation and fitness effects in hypothesis testing (e.g., by obtaining complementary measures of energy expenditure, demonstrating redundancy of function, and performing lifetime/longitudinal analyses). We point to continued progress in the use of MIBs in HEB to better understand the past, present, and future of humans and our closest primate relatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Several researchers have obtained discordant results testing the human capability to transport loads without added locomotion costs. Carrying loads has an extended relevance to human ecology, thus a review of the Free‐Ride phenomenon detection according to the existing literature is needed. Method: A search was made in November 2021 in SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Web of Science to identify studies comparing the energy expenditure of loaded and unloaded locomotion. Descriptive percentages were calculated with the data obtained from each study, and a Chi‐squared (χ2) independency test and a contingency table were applied to observe the relationship between sample characteristics, experimental procedures, and the detection of the Free‐Ride. Results: A total of 45 studies met the inclusion criteria. Eighty two percent do not detect the Free‐Ride phenomenon. The general detection is independent of sex, experience, load position, load size, and speed (p value >.05) although the papers detecting the Free‐Ride have some common characteristics. Conclusion: The literature does not support a Free‐Ride capacity, but future research testing this phenomenon should consider the load size, the load position, the level of expertise, or the speed. As the Free‐Ride is not generalizable, it can be hypothesized that other mechanisms may have emerged during human evolution to buffer the energetic demands of load carrying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The widespread variation seen in human growth globally stands at odds with the global health perspective that young child growth should not vary across populations if nutritional, environmental and care needs are met. This paper: (1) evaluates the idea that a single standard of "healthy" growth characterizes children under age 5, (2) discusses how variation from this standard is viewed in global health, in human biology and by parents, and (3) explores how views of "normal" growth shape biomedical and parental responses. Methods: This paper reviews the anthropological, public health and clinical literature on the nature of child growth and the applicability of World Health Organization Multicenter Growth Reference Study growth standards across contexts. Results: The considerable variability in child growth across contexts makes it unlikely that any one framework, with issues of sample selection and representativeness, can serve as the model of healthy growth. Global health, human biology and parents differ in the emphasis they place on heredity versus environmental context in understanding this variability, but human biologists and parents tend to view a wider range of growth as "normal." Since both biomedicine and parents base their care decisions on their perceptions of normal, healthy growth, the comparative framework used has important implications for medical treatment and feeding practices. Conclusions: A more nuanced approach that incorporates the biology of growth and its association with health outcomes across contexts is critical to identify patterns of healthy growth and to avoid over‐reliance on a single standard that may pathologize variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In chapter 9, Sobo outlines the many ways that inequality and structural violence shape biological experiences including a discussion of syndemics and other health inequalities. As part of her effort to build a unified approach to biocultural interactions, Sobo takes the time to include epigenetics as a means to examine how biology and experience intertwine. Specifying the integrative nature of gender, biology, and culture offers critical points for discussion and highlights how powerfully biology and culture can interact. [Extracted from the article]

Background: Autoimmune and inflammatory disorder (AIID) prevalence appears to be increasing in all but the world's poorest regions and countries. Autoimmune diseases occur when there is a breakdown in processes that regulate inflammation and self‐recognition by immune cells. Very few field‐based studies have been conducted among Indigenous populations and underserved communities with limited access to medical care. This is due, in part, to the fact that autoimmune diseases are difficult to diagnose, even in clinical settings. In remote field settings these difficulties are compounded by the absence of infrastructure necessary for sample storage and analysis, and the lack of hospital/clinic access for more invasive diagnostic procedures. Because of these limitations, little is known about the prevalence of autoimmunity outside wealthy regions and clinical settings. Aims: The present paper discusses why AIID are of critical importance in human biology research and why more work needs to be devoted to validating, testing, and utilizing methods for detecting autoantibodies and other biomarkers related to autoimmunity in field‐friendly, minimally invasively‐collected samples. This paper reviews some of the methods used to diagnose AIIDs in clinical settings, and highlights methods that have been used in studies within human biology and related fields, emphasizing the invasiveness of specific methods and their feasibility in remote field settings. Discussion and Conclusions: Risk for AIID is affected by several reproductive, dietary, environmental, and genetic factors. Human biologists have unique perspectives that they can bring to autoimmunity research, and more population‐based studies on autoimmunity are needed within these and related fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: A critical biocultural anthropology seeks to link perspectives from social theory and ethnography to human biology. In the United States (U.S.), multiple forms of structural inequalities affect early growth, including racism and poverty. The goal of this paper is to test the effects of social inequalities on birth weight and later height in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES), and to contextualize potential pathways of embodiment that link social structure and biology. Methods: This study used data from 8392 children ages 0–5 years from the 2005 to 2016 NHANES. Reported birth weight and measured length/height (converted to height‐for‐age z‐scores) were used as outcome variables, while various measures of socioeconomic status and the NHANES‐defined race and ethnicity categories were operationalized as social variables. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was chosen to represent the data. Results: The final model represented an excellent fit to the data. Higher birth weights were associated with higher height‐for‐age z‐scores. The Black racial category was associated with lower birth weight and higher height‐for‐age z‐score, while the "Other" racial category was also associated with lower birth weight. The socioeconomic status factor variable was significantly associated with birth weight and height‐for‐age z‐scores. There were also multiple indirect effects of social variables on height‐for‐age z‐scores mediated via their effects on birth weight. Conclusions: Inequalities in race and socioeconomic status persist in birth weight and early childhood stature in the U.S. These findings can be contextualized by a critical biocultural anthropology that integrates lived experiences and pathways of embodiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Most anthropological researchers will engage with the public at some stage of their career. Some develop strong skills in public‐facing work, building bridges between local and global communities and the scientific enterprise. Anthropology and archaeology are unsustainable without such community support. Yet engagement work often goes unrecognized and unrewarded within academic institutions. Aims: We focus on ways to translate the value of public‐facing work within academic career trajectories. We consider some of the challenges and benefits of such work for early career researchers and for senior researchers, and we provide guidance that will be helpful across a broad range of career objectives. Materials and Methods: This study employs narratives of both early career and senior anthropologists. Results: Both early career and senior researchers report challenges and successes in building public‐facing work. Discussion: Pursuing public‐facing work in ways that are recognized in academic settings can be challenging both in early career and senior settings. The advice in this paper can help individuals build strategies that will lead to sustainable engagement and career progress. Conclusion: Attaining a balance between research and public engagement benefits both the fields of anthropology and human biology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study examines the relationship of finger ridge‐counts to second to fourth digit ratio, which has not yet been definitively demonstrated. The related question of sex dimorphism in finger ridge‐counts is further elucidated. Methods: A sample of Germans, including 1134 males and 1031 females, was examined for sex dimorphism in the finger ridge‐counts. Second and fourth digit lengths were measured in a sub‐sample of 91 males and 100 females to compute second to fourth digit ratio. Principal component scores were obtained to investigate sex dimorphism and the correlation between ridge‐counts and digit ratio. Regression and analysis of covariance were used to investigate relationships. Results: Males generally have higher ridge‐counts than females but subtle dimorphic features emerge from the principal components, such as a contrast between digits 2 and 4, suggesting a ratio analogous to the digit ratio. The most dimorphic feature is digit 1 directional asymmetry, males exhibiting a stronger right bias than females. Digit ratio is significantly related to four principal components, expressing various contrasts among digits. Other relationships involve contrasts between digits 3 and 5 and asymmetry on digit 2. Conclusions: This paper provides definitive evidence that finger ridge‐counts correlate with second to fourth digit ratio. The most important finding is that associations of ridge‐counts with digit ratio do not involve commonly used summary counts over all digits. Rather, associations act more locally, in ways paralleling the digit ratio, in others reflecting asymmetry. The results support the idea that prenatal sex hormones affect finger ridge‐counts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Approximately 2½ billion people worldwide rely on solid/biomass fuel as fuel for cooking/heating the home. Environmental exposure to the smoke associated with biomass fuel burning has been associated respiratory diseases, cardiac disorders, and altered blood pressure. Therefore, a systematic review and meta‐analysis was conducted to study this relationship across multiple studies. Methods: Searches were performed using PRISMA guidelines for articles using Web of Science, PubMed, Toxline, and Web of Science of peer reviewed papers with no beginning time restriction until February 2017. The search yielded 10 manuscripts after application of inclusion criteria, which encompassed 93 724 participants. Outcomes included (a) the proportion of people with a clinical diagnosis of hypertension in an exposed (vs. unexposed) population or (b) correlation coefficients examining degree of exposure and systolic/diastolic blood pressure. Results: The four studies reporting effect sizes for hypertension (N = 92 042) had a weighted mean effect size of r =.12 [−0.02, 0.27], z = 1.66, p = 0.097. The six studies reporting effect sizes for systolic and diastolic blood pressure (N = 1682) had weighted mean effect sizes of r =.15 [0.06, 0.24], p = 0.001, and r =.09 [0.03, 0.15], p = 0.002, respectively. Conclusion: These analyses revealed that there is a small‐but‐significant relationship between biomass fuel exposure and an increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, but the relationship between biomass fuel and hypertension specifically remains unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training in anthropology and evolutionary science ideally prepares scholars to recognize and challenge culturally grounded views of human variation. But upon inspection we find that idealized, and thus perhaps biased, conceptualizations of what is "normal" continue to permeate evaluations of human biology and behaviors. Each of the 13 contributions in this special issue on biological normalcy tackles these concerns as they pertain to some universal, but also variable, human biological or behavioral phenotype. These papers consider the ways in which the term "normal" is used in everyday life, in biomedicine, and in scientific studies to characterize some portion of the variability in a human phenotype. The contributors to this special issue, some of whom present original research findings, discuss the ongoing debates and challenges in the study of human biology and behavior, and critically examine how "normal" is used in their specific research area, thereby exposing and countering biases in the discourse on human phenotypic variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This review explores the dualism in evolutionary anthropology that both acknowledges a broad range of familial caretaking strategies, while also remaining tethered to theories scaffolded around notions of selfish genes that constrain our understanding of who provides adequate kin care. I examine the process of norm creation in the sciences by investigating how theory may limit which data are collected and how those data are interpreted. Methods: This paper serves as a literature review and critique of prominent biological, evolutionary, and psychological conceptualizations of parental investment and caretaking in humans, and how these studies shape what is considered normal behavior in scientific literature. Results: Quantification, assessment, and theory building in evolutionary anthropology, and an oversampling of WEIRD communities in other disciplines, have limited our understanding of what constitutes both evolutionarily adaptive behaviors, and culturally specific human behaviors. Conclusions: A synthetic theoretical model of behavioral norms in childrearing must account for an exchange of psycho‐social and cultural resources and skills, the transfer of energetic reserves via gestation and lactation, and the indirect benefits of genetic inheritance. The emphasis on tailoring data collection to fit evolutionary theories of the family has limited our ability to understand the diverse proximate mechanisms that humans employ in taking care of kin as biocultural reproducers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological normalcy is a new analytical framework for understanding the bi‐directional relationships between the biology of populations and cultural norms. Populations are characterized by statistical distributions—that is, measures of central tendency and variance—for biological traits, and these co‐exist in societies with ideas about what constitutes "normal" human bodies, that is, normative views about what bodies "should" be like. While statistical norms may carry no explicit evaluative weight, the question is how they are related to judgments about what is "normal" or "abnormal." In a 1947 paper, Margaret Mead recognized their potential relationship: "normal...may refer to the statistically usual in the culture—usually without any recognition that this is culturally relative—so that the statistically usual is identified with the basically human...." Despite her observations over 70 years ago, little has been done on this topic, yet such work promises new insights into the relationship between culture and biology, here described at the population level, rather than as individual genetic characteristics. Using examples of sex/gender, race/ethnicity, age, and my work on human variation in the ability to drink milk, I outline the ways in which statistical norms may: influence individuals' perceptions of what is "normal" (Mead's "basically human"); lead to normative judgments about what human biology "should" be ("ethno‐biocentrism") that are reinforced by biases in discourse about human variation; and potentially feedback to mold the biological characteristics of a population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are able to thrive in a multitude of ecological and social environments, including varied environments over an individual lifetime. Migration—leaving one place of residence for another—is a central feature of many people's life histories, and environmental change goes hand‐in‐hand with migration, both in terms of cause and consequence. Climate change has amplified this connection between environment and migration, with the potential to profoundly impact millions of lives. Although climate‐induced migration has been at the forefront of other disciplines in the social sciences, evolutionary anthropologists (EAs) have given it little attention. In this paper we draw upon existing literature and contribute our EA perspective to present a framework for analyzing climate‐induced migration that utilizes theoretical approaches from a variety of social science disciplines. We focus on three overlapping dimensions—time, space, and severity—relevant to understanding the impact of climate change on human migration. We apply this framework to case studies from North America of people impacted by climate change and extreme weather events, including hurricanes, droughts, rising sea‐levels, and wildfires. We also consider how access to both economic and social resources influence decisions regarding migration. Research focused on climate‐induced human migration can benefit equally from the addition of EA perspectives and a more interdisciplinary theoretical approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been demonstrated that rickets occurs at variable thresholds of calcium intake and vitamin D status, that these are inversely related, and that vitamin D deficiency is not the default driver of rickets on a global scale. We thank Mays and Brickley ([6]) for their engagement with our paper (Vlok et al., [9]) and acknowledge the important work they have done advancing the study of metabolic bone disease. However, approximately 40% of the children with rickets presented with 25(OH)D SB 3 sb > 25 nmol/L and almost 90% had elevated PTH, indicating a proportion of rickets cases with elevated PTH that cannot be readily fully attributed to vitamin D deficiency. [Extracted from the article]

The papers in this special issue, " Continuity and Change in Biocultural Anthropology", represent a snapshot of current research projects described by the authors as "biocultural." Howell and co-authors used self-reported impact-of-event distress; Dressler used depressive symptoms; and Brewis and Wutich used a hygiene behavior scale and a novel measure of preferred social distancing (who knew how relevant that would become in these COVID-19 times). These included structural barriers to enacting changes in health behaviors, race or ethnicity, class, maternal transmission or programming, and lifestyle and behavior attributes. Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: Challenges and the potential to advance health equity. [Extracted from the article]

Objectives The study of assortative mating for height has a rich history in human biology. Although the positive correlation between the stature of spouses has often been noted in western populations, recent papers suggest that mating patterns for stature are not universal. The objective of this paper was to review the published evidence to examine the strength of and universality in assortative mating for height. Methods We conducted an extensive literature review and meta-analysis. We started with published reviews but also searched through secondary databases. Our search led to 154 correlations of height between partners. We classified the populations as western and non-western based on geography. These correlations were then analyzed via meta-analytic techniques. Results 148 of the correlations for partner heights were positive and the overall analysis indicates moderate positive assortative mating ( r = .23). Although assortative mating was slightly stronger in countries that can be described as western compared to non-western, this difference was not statistically significant. We found no evidence for a change in assortative mating for height over time. There was substantial residual heterogeneity in effect sizes and this heterogeneity was most pronounced in western countries. Conclusions Positive assortative mating for height exists in human populations, but is modest in magnitude suggesting that height is not a major factor in mate choice. Future research is necessary to understand the underlying causes of the large amount of heterogeneity observed in the degree of assortative mating across human populations, which may stem from a combination of methodological and ecological differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: To validate a method for measuring endotoxin‐core antibodies (EndoCAb) from dried blood spots (DBS)—drops of capillary whole blood collected and dried on filter paper—as an indicator of environmental enteropathy (EE) in infancy and early childhood. Methods: A commercially available enzyme immunoassay kit was adapted for use with DBS, with optimized steps for sample elution. Technical validation included analysis of linearity/recovery, precision and reliability, lower limit of detection, and correspondence between matched plasma and DBS samples. Validation in a field‐based setting was implemented with samples from Peruvian infants (n = 82; age = 2–33 months) collected at two time points six months apart. Results: A high correspondence between plasma and DBS levels of EndoCAb was observed (R2 = 0.93, P < .001). The lower limit of detection was found to be 0.01 GMU/mL. Interassay coefficient of variation (CV) was 10.9% and 8.06% for low and high controls, respectively. Mean intra‐assay CVs were 3.22% and 1.83%, respectively. In a sample of Peruvian infants, EndoCAb levels increased with age as expected (P < .001). Age explained nearly 34.6% of the variance in EndoCAb across the sample. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate the validity and feasibility of measuring EndoCAb in remote field settings using minimally invasive DBS sampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: Studies of hunter–gatherer oral pathology, particularly in Australia, often focus upon dental wear and caries or assume that historic studies of Aboriginal people reflect the precontact past. Consequently the range of population variation has been underestimated. In this paper dental pathology from human remains from Roonka are compared with a model of dental pathology derived from historic studies. The aim is to identify aspects of dental pathology indicative of regional or intra‐population diversity. Methods: Adult dentitions (n = 115) dating from the mid to late Holocene were recorded for the following conditions: dental wear, caries, periapical voids, calculus, periodontal disease and antemortem tooth loss. Statistical analysis was used to identify patterns of dental pathology and to identify causal relationships between conditions. Results: Dental wear is marked while dental caries rates are extremely low. Other indications of dental pathology are uncommon (<7% of teeth affected). Temporal heterogeneity is apparent: there are 3 young adults with caries who died in the postcontact period. There is also a small group of middle age to old adults with disproportionate abscessing and pulp exposure who may represent temporal variation or heterogeneity in individual frailty. Conclusions: The results confirm dental wear as the major cause of dental pathology in this group and that, at a general level, historic accounts do correspond with this archeological sample. However, intra‐sample heterogeneity is apparent while 2 dental conditions, calculus and periodontal disease, along with the pattern of sex differences deviate from expectation, demonstrating that to identify regional variation attention needs to be paid to the dentoalveolar complex as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Changing economic activities bring significant cultural, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions. Infancy represents a critical period when rapid growth and metabolic programming occur, making infants particularly vulnerable to long-lasting biological changes due to such transitions. This paper examines the relationship between residence in distinct economic production zones (urban, herding, and dairy) and early growth in a highland district of Peru. Methods The length, weight, body mass index, and triceps skinfold of 93 infants (55 boys and 38 girls, aged 2 to 24 months) from 3 economic zones were measured at two time points 6 months apart. Z-scores were calculated based on the WHO Growth Reference for children under 5 years of age. Comparisons were made to the reference group and between economic zones to examine the impacts of different economic activities on infant growth. Results Female infants had significantly higher height-for-age z-scores (HAZ) than males ( P < 0.05). Across zones, dairying infants had the highest HAZ scores and the lowest prevalence of stunting. There was a significant association between zone and HAZ at baseline. While these associations were attenuated in measurements, taken 6 months later, longitudinal growth monitoring revealed differential patterns of weight gain and adiposity deposition across the zones with herding infants showing consistent high adiposity and urban infants gaining both weight and adiposity between rounds. Discussion Changes in economic activity are bringing about nutritional and epidemiological transitions in the Nuñoa district. Economic activity is a key factor influencing early growth with distinct longitudinal growth patterns in each economic zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human Biology and Public Health, 1, 1 - 20. https://doi.org/10.52905/hbph.v1.10 4 Faizi, N., Zubair, M. Y., & Tasleem, F. (2022). With great interest, we read the letter by Faizi, Zubair, and Tasleem (2022) as a critical response to our paper "Stunting is the natural condition of human height.". [Extracted from the article]

ABSTRACT Objectives The paper tests the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, according to which nonharmonious growth trajectories are costly for adult health. Methods The American surge in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes is concentrated in the South, a region characterized by a long history of poverty followed by rapid economic growth beginning in the 1960s. Civil rights legislation further accelerated income growth for African-Americans in the region. The paper investigates the hypothesis by using per capita income at the state level as a proxy for net nutritional conditions. Results Regressions at the state level explain 56% of the variation in the prevalence rate of type 2 diabetes in 2009 using two explanatory variables: the ratio of per capita income in 1980 to that in 1950 and the share of the population that was African-American. The paper discusses ways that rapid economic growth may have translated into weight gain and type 2 diabetes. Conclusions If the thrifty phenotype hypothesis is correct, future rates in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes are predictable based on income history. The forecast for rapidly developing countries such as India and China are ominous. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 25:508-515, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The size and proportions of the human body change continuously in response to social change and economic development. As reported by papers on intergenerational changes in chest size, this part of the human body is also influenced by environmental factors. The aim of this study was to assess changes in the dimensions and proportions of the chest of children and adolescents over a span of 70 years. Methods In 2010 an anthropological study was conducted on 3878 children and adolescents aged 3-18 years living in Kraków (Poland). Data on chest dimensions (breadth, depth, circumference, chest index) were compared to data from 1938 (3719 children) and 1983 (6464 children). Results In boys, chests became increasingly deep; in boys 18 years of age, the chest index increased by 4.8 units, unlike girls, whose chests markedly flattened. The chest index in girls 18 years of age decreased by 4.2 units. In almost all age categories these differences were statistically significant. Also, in all age categories, children studied in 2010 had a significantly bigger chest circumference than boys and girls surveyed in 1983, respectively, by averages of 3.6 cm and 3 cm. Conclusions The main reason for these changes may be the socio-economic transformation, which has been especially strong in recent decades. These results may have practical importance in many areas of knowledge, including medicine, nutritional science, and sports. They can also be important for informing preventive measures that should be taken in order to increase the physical activity of children and youth, especially boys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To develop a fully-automated algorithm to process axial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) slices for quantifying abdominal visceral, subcutaneous and total adipose tissues, i.e., VAT, SAT, and TAT, without human intervention or prior knowledge. Materials and Methods Fat regions in single MRI slice or sequence (20 slices) were identified with image processing techniques including region-growing, inhomogeneity correction, fuzzy c-means clustering, and active contours segmentation. The MR images of 85 subjects (60 males and 25 females), whose body mass index (BMI) values ranged from 19.96 to 40.35 kg/m2, were analyzed using the fully-automated algorithm-the automatic method developed in the research and the widely used semi-automated software (sliceOmatic® Tomovision, Inc.)-the reference method. Results The proposed automated method showed good performance against the reference method to quantify adipose tissues in both single umbilical slice and MRI sequence. The square of the Pearson correlation coefficients ( R2) based on the results generated from the two methods for VAT/SAT/TAT were 0.977/0.998/0.997 for single slice data and 0.995/0.999/0.999 for volumetric data. The intra-class correlation of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) between the three operators was 0.939 in the reference method, which was improved to 0.999 in the automatic method. The adipose tissue measurements in the slice at Lumbar 3 vertebra have the highest correlation with the total fat volumes across the entire abdomen. Conclusion The fully-automated algorithm presented in the paper provides an accurate and reliable assessment of abdominal fat without human intervention. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 28:757-766, 2016. © 2016Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study aims to validate a modified dried blood spot (DBS)-based glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) assay protocol, after a pretest in India showed poor correlation between the original DBS-based protocol and venous results. Methods The original protocol was tested on different chemistry analyzers and then simplified at the University of Washington (UW). A second pretest was conducted in India to validate the modified assay protocol, using 44 quality control specimens. Results Data from UW indicated that, using the original protocol, the correlation coefficients between DBS and venous results were above 0.98 on both Bio-Rad and Olympus chemistry analyzers. The protocol worked equally well on filter paper, with or without pre-treatment, and when the recommended amount of blood spot material, or less, was used. A second pretest of the modified protocol confirmed that DBS-based levels from both Olympus and Roche chemistry analyzers were well correlated with DBS results from UW (correlation coefficients were above 0.96), as well as with venous values (correlation coefficients were above 0.94). Conclusions The DBS-based HbA1c values are highly correlated with venous results. The pre-treatment of filter paper does not appear to be necessary. The poor results from the first pretest are probably due to factors unrelated to the protocol, such as problems with the chemistry analyzer or assay reagents. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:579-581, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this special issue of the I American Journal of Human Biology i , co-editors Morgan Hoke and Lawrence Schell have brought together an impressive group of authors to present current research and emerging trends in biocultural anthropology. Since the publication of Goodman & Leatherman's (1998) landmark volume, I Building a New Biocultural Synthesis i : I Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology i , biocultural approaches to the study of human biology and health have expanded and become increasingly sophisticated. The three-dimensional model of culture presented in this paper builds on Dressler's foundational work in operationalizing cultural constructs for evaluating variation in human biology and health. [Extracted from the article]

The article discusses the result of a study which examined height and relative leg length as indicators of the quality of the environment among Mozambican juveniles and adolescents. It was found that relative leg length is not sensitive enough to distinguish the quality of the living environment. The paper also discusses possible genetic influences on relative leg length.

Information about several papers discussed at a symposium sponsored by the Human Biology Association is presented. Topics include a report from the publications committee about the revised human biology textbook, report of the nominations and elections from the standing committee, and a report from the student committee. Speakers from the conference include Noel Cameron, Peter Ellison, and Gillian Ice.

Until 50 years ago, high-altitude terrestrial research was conducted largely within the realm of environmental physiology, where interests were focused on physiological mechanisms and mountain exploration. Scientists from the United States, Europe, and Peru had developed sophisticated physiological models of adaptation and acclimatization to the hypoxia of high altitude, but very little research had been conducted on permanent residents, particularly natives of high altitude in the two major regions of the world-the Andes and the Himalayas. In 1962, Raul T. Baker initiated a project at the Pennsylvania State University to explore the responses of indigenous Peruvians to the major stresses at altitude: hypoxia and cold. Approaches to this early research were anthropological in perspective and centered on population-level studies with an evolutionary approach. Studies were conducted by applying a combination of physiological experimental methods, simulated field experiments, and extended anthropological field observations. Early hypotheses at this time were that heredity played a major role in the adaptive complexes in native high-altitude residents. These early hypotheses were later modified to incorporate or replace the genetic hypotheses with developmental adaptation models. A half century of research within anthropology and research in other fields has presented a vastly more complex and integrated picture of high-altitude adaptation in native residents. Recent studies incorporate physiology and oxygen transport, population and molecular genetics, reproduction, growth, and development. The history and current status of high-altitude research and its anthropological applications are treated in papers from this plenary symposium. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 25:148-150, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is associated with the production of C-reactive protein, the acute phase response, and chronic low-grade inflammation. In this report, we describe and validate a highly sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for quantifying IL-6 at low concentrations in samples of capillary whole blood collected from a simple finger stick and dried on filter paper (dried blood spots, DBS). Methods: A commercially available ELISA for IL-6 was modified to develop a protocol for the quantification of IL-6 in DBS samples. Procedures for sample elution and incubation were optimized for precision, reliability, accuracy, and lower limit of detection using small volumes of DBS. A set of 46 matched serum/DBS samples were used to evaluate agreement between serum and DBS results. Results: The protocol demonstrated acceptable levels of precision, reliability, accuracy, and agreement with serum-based results. The lower limit of detection was sufficiently low to measure levels of IL-6 associated with both chronic, low-grade inflammation, and acute increases in inflammatory activity. Conclusions: This protocol adds to the growing panel of analytes validated for quantification in DBS samples and should facilitate future research on the causes and consequences of inflammation in diverse non-clinical settings. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various papers published within the issue including one on the analogy between contemporary food environment and benign captive environments of companion, zoo and laboratory, one on the association between cognitive behavior and food and eating, and another on the presence of toxins in food.

Logistics of using new measurement devices are important to understand when developing protocols. This paper discusses the logistics of using Actiheart physical activity monitors on children in an urban, tropical environment in a developing country. Actiheart monitoring of 36 children aged 7-9 years old was undertaken for 7 days in the city of Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico. The Actiheart proved fragile for children and difficult to mend in the field. The excessive sweating due to the tropical climate caused poor adherence of the electrode pads, requiring a pad change midway through and extra pads to be provided. Also extra time was needed to be allotted for increased instructions to participants and their mothers and for individual calibration. When collecting objectively measured physical activity data under harsh conditions, the protocol must accommodate local conditions and device limitations and allow increased time with participants to obtain good quality data. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2011. © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of human biology in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic is transforming the lives of human populations around the world and stimulating a global research effort aimed at understanding and addressing this disease. Together, I believe that these papers and the podcast can serve as an important resource, highlighting the distinctive methods and perspectives that human biologists draw upon to better understand this pandemic. [Extracted from the article]

Objectives: Hand coordination is a key feature in primate evolution at both behavioral and cognitive levels. Humans further improved their manual abilities, and their cognitive niche is deeply associated with hand‐tool relationships and technological capacity. A main cognitive change is thought to be related to the transition from Oldowan to Acheulean stone tool technology around 1.7 million years ago. In this survey, we test whether distinct Lower Paleolithic tools induce different electrophysiological reactions during haptic exploration. Methods: Electrodermal activity is a relatively quick way to measure emotional and attentional changes during specific tasks. We analyzed changes of the electrodermal response and electrodermal level during Oldowan and Acheulean stone tool handling in a sample of 46 right‐handed adult subjects with no previous archeological knowledge. Results: Electrodermal proxies for attention and emotion display a skewed distribution. Females present more variable reactions than males and more emotional engagement. Acheulean tools require longer manipulation time and exert less emotional response than Oldowan tools. Attention is influenced by tool length and weight, emotion is sensitive to tool thickness and weight, and manipulation time depends on tool length and width. Conclusions: This study suggests subtle but detectable perceptual differences when handling Oldowan and Acheulean stone tools. Such variations associated with hand‐tool interaction can provide information on haptic and prosthetic capacities associated with our specialized technological resources. Perceptual changes in the archeological record can reveal evolutionary changes in the corresponding body‐tool cognitive mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information about several papers discussed at a symposium held on November 12, 2018 at JW Marriott, Austin on human biology. Topics include motion to approve the minutes of the business meeting for the year 2017, experience required for central roles and needs of the Executive Committee and use of social media to promote subjects related to human biology.

The paper tests the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, according to which nonharmonious growth trajectories are costly for adult health.The American surge in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes is concentrated in the South, a region characterized by a long history of poverty followed by rapid economic growth beginning in the 1960s. Civil rights legislation further accelerated income growth for African‐Americans in the region. The paper investigates the hypothesis by using per capita income at the state level as a proxy for net nutritional conditions.Regressions at the state level explain 56% of the variation in the prevalence rate of type 2 diabetes in 2009 using two explanatory variables: the ratio of per capita income in 1980 to that in 1950 and the share of the population that was African‐American. The paper discusses ways that rapid economic growth may have translated into weight gain and type 2 diabetes.If the thrifty phenotype hypothesis is correct, future rates in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes are predictable based on income history. The forecast for rapidly developing countries such as India and China are ominous. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various papers published within the issue including "The Von Economo Neurons," "Biochemical Specificity of von Economo Neurons in Hominoids," "The Selfish Brain: Competition for Energy Resources."