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Characteristic curves of photographic film are considered as an industry standard for all film manufacturers. Based on the optical density of suspended silver particles, a characteristic curve is unique to each film type providing a reference point to the users on the quality of any chemical development process subjected to the product. Most of the commercial developing chemical's usage were calibrated towards the curves. However, the bulk of the published curves are based on commercialized standard chemicals formulation, absent in either newer or non-commercialized formulations. To justify the feasibility of these formulations, we must therefore construct the required characteristic curves, albeit qualitatively. This study suggests ways in which to utilize the trend in characteristic curves to provide a preliminary assessment of Caffenol developers over a few film emulsions from different manufacturers. All film emulsion tested give lower quality negatives, but KODAK and Ilford show usable results for normal photography uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monobath or single step film developing formulations had existed in tandem with photography itself but gradually abandoned to the rapid user transition into color photography. The rapid commercialization & technological advancement of the latter drives the monobath technique into stagnation. In the past decade, the resurgence of film photography had driven back the interest in monobath development prompting a few monobath products to be commercially available. Most of the commercial developing chemical's usage were calibrated towards the characteristic curves published by film manufacturers. However, these monobaths are without reference to the characteristic curves in comparison with other standard commercial developers. To justify the feasibility of this formulation, we must therefore construct the required characteristic curves, albeit qualitatively. Utilizing basic optical densitometry method, qualitative analysis was conducted toward a comparative study of multiple commercial black & white photographic film stocks. This study suggests ways in which to utilize the trend in characteristic curves to provide a preliminary assessment of monobath developer over several commercial photographic film stocks. All film emulsion tested have lower quality negatives results compared to conservative developers, but KODAK & Ilford shows usable results for normal photography uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photographic lens is an invention to duplicate human eye functions and operations. Starting with seeing and focusing the object, the lens then transmits lights containing information of the scene such as colours, brightness and shapes to the digital sensor or photographic film. To produce such invention, it comprises complex steps which include material selection and processing, lens machining and finishing. Being the first of its kind, this paper will review the roles of process systems engineering (PSE) in the manufacturing of sustainable photographic lens from R&D and commercial angles. The review will detail PSE contributions for each of the step and highlights the related challenges in implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bones make up the skeleton of the body by attachment points for muscles, which allows human to run, jump, and do actions. It also protects organs from potential damages. Fracture is a medical term for a broken bone when bone has an outside force exerted upon it, there is possibility that the bone cannot withstand the amount of force and break it. These fractures can treat by implanting internal fixations at the fractures such as screw and plates. To diagnose the fractures and follow up the treatment, x-ray taken at the fractured area. X-ray image is one of the oldest photographic films that is mostly used in medical diagnosis and treatment. X-ray image is a very useful modality for the physicians and doctors to determine and analyse the bone fracture, which is an important symptom used for diagnosis, therefore x-ray produce only medium quality image, which will normally affect the information of the image. This paper aims to use a new method to detect the screw implants on human bone by using image binarization technique. Image binarization is the process of separating pixel values into a couple of groups, black as foreground and white as background. Image binarization is an important step in image thresholding. The main objective is to find a new method of image thresholding to of object detection. The method is by developing a new algorithm of image thresholding by making the already exist algorithm as references. The resulting method was analysis based on accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]