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Annual legume green manure (LGM) cover crops may have potential in dryland wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production areas where rotation with whole-year summer fallow is practiced. No-till cropland management enhances soil water conservation, possibly enabling cover cropping, but tillage may be necessary to stimulate mineralization of LGM N in time to affect crop yield. A 2-yr LGM-wheat crop sequence study was repeated three times in Montana, with mean annual precipitation of 356 mm. Spring-planted pea (Pisum sativum L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) The LGM were terminated at first bloom with tillage or herbicide. Post-termination weed control also was accomplished with either tillage or herbicide in a factorial combination with the termination treatments, resulting in four management regimes. Fallow and non-N-fixing cover crop controls were included and subjected to the same management regimes. Spring wheat was grown the following year in subplots with four levels of N fertilizer. Wheat tiller density increased only when LGM was tilled at least once. Tillage also resulted in reduced soil water storage and wheat kernel weight in 1 yr. Effects on grain yield were usually neutral or positive, with pea more frequently having a positive effect than lentil, and interactions with tillage varying each year. Wheat grain protein was increased by pea LGM regardless of tillage, even when LGM did not affect wheat yield, indicating that LGM N supply is accelerated by tillage. Managing LGM in dryland environments involves a tradeoff of soil water for N supply, and tillage affects this balance.

Strip-till can improve soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) yield and increase P and K availability relative to no-till. Our objectives were to evaluate the eff ect of P and K rate and placement in no-till and strip-till on soybean-seed oil and protein content, aboveground growth and P and K accumulation, and soil water. A 3-yr fi eld experiment was conducted near Urbana, IL, with tillage/fertilizer placement treatment as the main plots: no-till/broadcast (NTBC), no-till/deep band (NTDB), and strip-till/deep band (STDB) with banded fertilizer at 15 cm beneath the planted row. Phosphorus (0, 12, 24, and 36 kg ha -1 yr -1 ) was the subplot and K (0, 42, 84, and 168 kg ha -1 yr -1 ) was the sub-subplot. Higher protein and oil yields were produced with STDB than the no-till treatments. Increase protein yield with P fertilization occurred only for the no-till treatments, but STDB maintained higher protein yield than the no-till treatments when no P was applied, indicating that STDB was more eff ective at making P available to the crop. Phosphorus and K placement made no diff erence in protein and oil concentration or yield. Leaf area index (LAI) was greater for STDB than NTBC and NTDB and greater for NTDB than NTBC. Phosphorus and K fertilization increased LAI relative to the check by V2 stage illustrating the importance of fertilization for early growth. Th e advantage for soybean production with STDB over the no-till treatments was the result of greater soil water content in STDB during the reproductive stages.

Fertilizer placement is often designed to improve nutrient availability. Our objective was to determine the effect of P and K rate and placement in no-till and strip-till on grain yield; water, P, and K values in the soil; and the distribution of corn (Zea mays L.) roots. A 4-yr field experiment was setup near Urbana, IL, with a corn–soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation. Tillage/fertilizer placement was the main plot [no-till/broadcast (NTBC), no-till/deep band (NTDB), and strip-till/deep band (STDB)]; deep band was 15-cm beneath the crop row. Phosphorus fertilizer rate (0, 12, 24, and 36 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) was the subplot, and K-fertilizer rate (0, 42, 84, and 168 kg K ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) was the sub-subplot. Measurements included grain yield and yield components, grain and shoot P and K concentrations, root parameters, and soil-water, P, and K values. Strip-till/deep band produced greater kernels row⁻¹ and 9.43 Mg ha⁻¹ yield that was 7.8% greater than NTBC and 7.9% greater than NTDB. Deep banding increased soil P and K test values beneath the crop row and lowered soil surface test values compared with broadcast applications, but had no effect on root distribution. Across treatments, greatest apparent P and K uptake occurred in the surface layer where most roots were present and where precipitation replenished water to a greater extent than deeper layers. Relative to NTBC, STDB had 24% greater apparent-P and 23% greater apparent-K uptake rates. The results indicate that improved conditions for nutrient uptake provide a competitive advantage for production with STDB relative to no-till treatments.

Published in Agron. J. 103:1862–1869 (2011) Posted online 6 Oct 2011 doi:10.2134/agronj2011.0149 Copyright © 2011 by the American Society of Agronomy, 5585 Guilford Road, Madison, WI 53711. All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. S is an important crop in the United States, with 31.1 million ha planted in 2010 (USDA/NASS, 2010). In 2008, 62% of full-season soybeans and 76% of double-cropped (planted aft er wheat harvest) soybeans in the United States were planted under no-tillage or some other conservation tillage system (CTIC, 2008). No-till is oft en preferred over conventional tillage because it can result in operational cost savings to farmers, reduce soil erosion (Trewavas, 2004), and conserve soil water (Williams et al., 2009). No-till soybean production has challenges, however. Soybean typically follows corn in rotation, and the large amount of corn crop residue on the soil surface at planting can be a challenge for no-till soybean production. Soils covered with crop residue have higher albedo, which slows warming and evaporation of water in the soil surface, oft en resulting in delays in planting or germination, and slow early growth (Jones et al., 1994). Such delays can be detrimental to soybean yield (De Bruin and Pedersen, 2008). Th e strip-till system is one in which a narrow (15–25 cm wide) band is tilled to a depth of 10 to 20 cm and the new crop row planted atop this strip. Th is system provides most of the soil and water conservation benefi ts of no-till, while improving seedbed condition similar to conventional tillage systems (Jones et al., 1994; Morrison, 2002). Improved seedbed conditions by removing crop residue from the planting row in strip-till relative to no-till has been shown to enhance seed germination, faster early plant growth, and grain yield for corn in soils that tend to be cool and wet in the spring (Vyn and Raimbault, 1992; Morrison, 2002; Vetsch and Randall, 2002; Randall and Vetsch, 2008). Compared to corn production, relatively less work has been done to assess benefi ts of strip-till for soybean production (Vyn et al., 1998; Randall and Vetsch, 2008). Another possible advantage to strip-till is the opportunity it provides for simultaneous deep banding of fertilizer materials. Deep banding of fertilizer, especially P, may be benefi cial to reduce surface P concentrations and lower potential environmental concern related to water runoff from fi elds with high P levels at the soil surface (Duiker and Beegle, 2006; Randall and Vetsch, 2008). In addition, deep banding of fertilizers has been hypothesized as an alternative to increase nutrient availability and improve fertilizer use effi ciency. In much of the U.S. Corn Belt soybean production is rainfed. In nutrient-stratifi ed systems where P and K concentrations are high in the soil surface, excessive drying of that layer during reproductive stages—when soybean accumulate about 75% of their total P and K (Hanway and Weber, 1971)—may limit nutrient uptake (Yin and Vyn, 2002). However, Fernandez et al. (2008, 2009) showed greater apparent K uptake in the top 5 cm of a vertically stratifi ed no-till soil when intermittent rainfall provided adequate moisture during the growing season. Similarly, inconsistent response to deep banding of fertilizers has been reported for soybean seed yield. Some have reported yield advantages with deep band compared to broadcast fertilizer (Ebelhar and Varsa, 2000), while others have reported no advantage (Borges and Mallarino, 2000; Yin and Vyn, 2002; Rehm and Lamb, 2004). Th e limited amount of information on soybean production in strip-till and the ABSTRACT

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Reduced tillage results in lower production costs and thus may have economic advantages for farmers. However, yield penalties, specific yield risks, or higher nutrient requirements may counteract the positive effects of reduced tillage. This study investigates long-term tillage effects (moldboard plow, and deep and shallow chisel plow) and their interactions with N fertilizer input on yields and economic performance in a corn (Zea mays L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)-wheat rotation in southern Germany. Conventional tillage (CT) and reduced tillage systems provided comparable economic returns. The systems of reduced tillage required higher surface-dribbled urea ammonium nitrate solution (UAN) fertilizer to corn and potato to be as efficient as the CT system. This may have implications for the overall environmental assessment of reduced tillage systems. For moderate- and higher-risk-averse producers, CT with usual fertilizer practice was more efficient than all other management options for the whole rotation. Farmers' risk aversion has no impact on the choice of the most efficient tillage and fertilizer management for potato (CT with usual fertilizer practice) and for corn (reduced tillage with increased fertilizer level). For wheat, the results show a high impact of risk aversion on the optimal choice of the tillage and fertilizer system. With increased energy prices, the economic savings of the reduced tillage systems due to reduced fuel use may be offset by higher fertilizer requirements since nitrous fertilizer prices are highly determined by energy costs.

Management practices may influence soil N levels due to crop uptake and leaching. We evaluated the effects of three tillage practices [no-till (NT), strip till (ST), and chisel till (CT)], four cover crops [hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth), rye (Secale cereale L.), vetch 1 rye biculture, and winter weeds or no cover crop], and three N fertilization rates (0, 60–65, and 120–130 kg N ha 21 )o n NH 4–N and NO3–N contents in Dothan sandy loam (fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic, Plinthic Paleudults), and N uptake by cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] from 2000 to 2002 in central Georgia. Nitrogen content was higher in vetch and vetch 1 rye than in rye and weeds. Soil NH4–N content at 0 to 30 cm was higher at harvest than at planting, and higher in NT or vetch with 120 to 130 kg N ha 21 than with other treatments. The NO3–N content at 0 to 120 cm varied with date of sampling and was higher with vetch than with rye and weeds. The NO3–N content at 0 to 10 cm was higher in CT with vetch than in NTand STwith rye or weeds. From November 2000 to April 2001 and from November 2001 to April 2002, N loss from crop residue and soil at 0 to 120 cm was higher with vetch than with other cover crops. Nitrogen removed by cotton lint was higher with rye than with other cover crops in 2000 and higher with 0 and 60 than with 120 kg N ha 21 in 2002, but N removed by sorghum grain and cotton and sorghum biomass were higher with vetch than with rye, and higher with 120 to 130 than with 0 kg N ha 21 . Because of higher N supply, vetch increased soil mineral N and cotton and sorghum N uptake compared with rye, but also increased the potential for N leaching. The potential for N leaching can be reduced and crop N uptake can be optimized by mixing vetch with rye.

Although zone tillage can result in favorable in-row seedbed environments for high crop yield while providing soil conservation characteristics similar to no-till, it necessitates a wide row width planting system. The objective of this study was to evaluate various zone-till systems for soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production. This study was conducted in southwestern Ontario from 1998 to 2000 on nine fields with clay contents between 133 and 354 g kg 21 and a minimum 5-yr continuous no-till history. Tillage systems evaluated were fall moldboard, fall zone-till 15- and 30-cm deep, spring coulter tillage, and no-till. The no-till and moldboard systems were planted in equally spaced 19-, 38-, 57-, and 76-cm rows plus a twin-row configuration consisting of two 19-cm rows centered 76 cm apart. Only single 76-cm and twin-row configurations were planted in the zone-till and coultertill systems, where tillage was conducted in strips centered 76 cm apart. Twin-row configurations in no-till, spring coulter-till, and fall zone-till systems often increased yields over those obtained with single 76-cm rows, with yields that were always similar to those obtained with no-till planted in 38- or 19-cm rows. Depth of fall zone tillage did not affect soybean yield. Fall zone-till yields never exceeded those obtained with no-till, even in environments where no-till yields were less than those obtained with fall moldboard systems. Spring coulter tillage did not increase yields over those obtained with no-till. Future research evaluating zone-till systems for soybean should consider using twin-row planting configurations.

Biculture legume-cereal cover cropping may enhance above- and belowground biomass yields and C and N contents. The increase in C and N supply to the soil has the potential to improve soil quality and crop productivity compared with monoculture cover crop species. We examined above- and belowground (0- to 120-cm soil depth) biomass yields and C and N contents of a legume [hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth)], nonlegume [rye (Secale cereale L.)], and biculture of legume and nonlegume (vetch and rye) cover crops planted without tillage in the fall of 1999 to 2001 in central Georgia. After cover crop kill in the spring, cotton (Gossypium hitsutum L.) and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)] were planted using three tillage practices (no-till, strip till, and chisel till) with three N fertilization rates (0, 60 to 65, and 120 to 130 kg N ha '). The field experiment was arranged in a split-split plot. treatment with three replications on a Dothan sandy loam (fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic, Plinthic Kandiudults). Aboveground biomass yield of rye decreased from 6.1 to 2.3 Mg ha ' from 2000 to 2002, but yield of hairy vetch varied (2.4 to 5.2 Mg ha -1 ). In contrast, biomass yield of vetch and rye biculture (5.6 to 8.2 Mg ha -1 ) was greater than that of rye and vetch planted alone in all years. Compared with winter weeds in no cover crop treatment, C content in rye (1729 to 2670 kg ha -1 ') was greater due to higher biomass yield, but N content in vetch (76 to 165 kg ha -1 ) was greater due to higher N concentration, except in 2002. As a result, C (2260 to 3512 kg ha -1 ) and N (84 to 310 kg ha -1 ) contents in biculture were greater than those from monocultures in all years. Similarly, belowground biomass yield and C and N contents were greater in biculture than in monocultures. In 2001, aboveground biomass yield and C and N contents in coyer crops were also greater in strip till with biculture than in other treatments, except in chisel till with vetch and biculture, but belowground biomass yield and N content were greater in chisel till with biculture than in no-till, strip till, and chisel till with weeds. Cotton lint yield was lower with biculture than with rye, but sorghum grain yield and cotton and sorghum biomass (stems + leaves) yields and N uptake were greater with biculture than with rye. Because of higher biomass yield and C and N contents, biculture of hairy vetch and rye cover crops may increase N supply, summer crop yields, and N uptake compared with rye and may increase potentials to improve soil organic matter and reduce N leaching compared with vetch.

Potential agronomic and soil conservation benefits of modified no-till (NT) systems make them appealing for corn (Zea mays L.) production in the northern Corn Belt where adoption of NT has been limited due to yield reductions on these colder soils. A 4-yr (1997-2000) experiment was conducted on a high P- and K-testing Port Byron silt loam (fine silty, mixed, mesic typic Hapludoll) to determine the effects of four tillage systems [no-till (NT), Rawson zone till (ZT), fall strip till (ST), and conventional tillage practice (CT)] on corn production and cone index (CI; penetrometer resistance) in continuous corn and corn following soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Eight treatments, four tillage systems (main plots) with starter fertilizer at rates of 0 and 168 kg ha -1 of a 9-10-24, were arranged in a split-plot design with four replicates. Surface residue coverage after planting was maintained at high levels (>40%) with NT, ZT, and ST, whereas coverage averaged only 25% with the CT practice. Cone index during the period of early plant growth was significantly less for the ZT and ST systems compared with the NT and CT systems, but CI did not exceed 1.3 MPa. Four-year average yields of continuous corn grain ranked according to tillage were CT > ZT = ST > NT. A significant tillage × year interaction indicated equal yields for CT and NT in the first 2 yr but 1.0 to 1.2 Mg ha -1 less with NT in the last 2 yr. Tillage system did not significantly affect corn grain yields following soybean when averaged across years. Starter fertilizer increased yields by 0.5 Mg ha -1 on this high-testing soil for all tillage systems in both crop rotations. Surface residue and corn yields following corn and soybean can be optimized using modified NT systems (ZT and ST) and starter fertilizer in these well-drained, loess soils.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in the USA is generally seeded after several primary tillage operations that may include disking, chisel plowing, moldboard plowing, and bedding (conventional tillage systems). Concerns over erosion and production costs have increased interest in reduced tillage systems. Production in reduced tillage systems minimizes ability to incorporate fertilizers below the pegging zone, and residue on soil surface could impact movement of calcium sulfate (CaSO 4 ) into the soil, reducing Ca availability to pegs. Research was conducted from 1997 through 1999 to compare peanut yield and gross economic value of virginia market type peanut planted in conventional and strip tillage systems. Preplant fertilizer did not affect response to tillage. Response did not differ among conventional tillage systems consisting of disk, disk and chisel, or disk and moldboard plow or among reduced tillage systems. Pod yield of peanut grown in the most effective conventional tillage system exceeded yield when peanut was strip-tilled into stubble of the previous crop, strip-tilled into a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cover crop, or strip-tilled into beds prepared the previous fall without a cover crop. Tillage system and CaSO 4 rate affected pod yield and gross value independently. Gross value increased when CaSO 4 was applied regardless of tillage system. These data suggest that preplant fertilizer at relatively low, remedial rates does not affect peanut response to tillage systems. These data also suggest that tillage system does not have a major impact on peanut response to CaSO 4 . Collectively, these data indicate that the highest peanut yields occur in conventional tillage systems.

Reduced tillage has increased dramatically over the past several years and is expected to continue to increase in the future. Continuous no-till may become a popular tillage system with growers to facilitate compliance with government programs to control soil erosion. The objective of this research was to evaluate the long-term effects of four tillage systems and five fertilizer regimes on corn (Zea mays L.) yield. A 20-yr continuous-corn tillage x fertility study was conducted from 1970 to 1990 on an Ebbert silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Argiaquic Argialbolls), an imperfectly drained soil at the Belleville Research Center, Belleville, IL. Starter fertilizer did not increase corn height within a tillage system. Height was greater in no-till compared with conventional till (moldboard plow), reduced till (chisel plow), or alternate till (2 yr no-till, 1 yr moldboard plow) with or without a starter fertilizer. There was no difference in population among tillage systems due to fertilizer treatment. Corn population was lower in no-till compared with conventional till regardless of fertilizer treatment. Starter fertilizer did not increase yield in any tillage system. Corn yield averaged 5 to 7% lower in no-till compared with conventional till or reduced till where a starter fertilizer was applied. There was no difference in yield among tillage systems when NPK was broadcast. Corn yield was equal in conventional till, alternate till, reduced till, and no-till with fertilizer applied broadcast on an imperfectly drained soil. Continuous no-till with an imperfectly drained soil does not reduce corn yield.

Annual crop production in the Canadian prairies is undergoing significant change. Traditional monoculture cereal cropping systems, which rely on frequent summer-fallowing and use of mechanical tillage, are being replaced by extended and diversified crop rotations together with the use of conservation tillage (minimum and zero-tillage) practices. This paper reviews the findings of western Canadian empirical studies that have examined the economic forces behind these land use and soil tillage changes. The evidence suggests that including oilseed and pulse crops in the rotation with cereal grains contributes to higher and more stable net farm income in most soil-climatic regions, despite a requirement for increased expenditures on purchased inputs. In the very dry Brown soil zone and drier regions of the Dark Brown soil zone where the production risk with stubble cropping is high, the elimination of summer fallow from the cropping system may not be economically feasible under present and near-future economic conditions. The use of conservation tillage practices in the management of mixed cropping systems is highly profitable in the more moist Black and Gray soil zones (compared with conventional mechanical tillage methods) because of significant yield advantages and substantial resource savings that can be obtained by substituting herbicides for the large amount of tillage that is normally used. However, in the Brown soil zone and parts of the Dark Brown soil zone, the short-term economic benefits of using conservation tillage practices are more marginal and often less profitable than comparable conventional tillage practices.

Wind erosion and blowing dust on conventionally tilled winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-summer fallow cropland in eastern Washington, USA, reduces soil productivity and can contribute to poor air quality. Conservation tillage during fallow has long been known to curtail erosion and dust, but conventional tillage (CT) is still practiced on more than 80% of the cropland in the region. This paper reports the economic results of a 5-yr (1995-1999 harvest years) tillage system study at Lind, WA. The site averages 244 mm of annual precipitation, and the soil is a Shano silt loam (coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Xeric Haplocambids). Tillage systems were (i) CT, (ii) minimum tillage (MT; herbicides and tillage), and (iii) delayed MT (DMT; herbicides and delayed tillage). Wheat grain yield across years ranged from 1.79 to 5.20 Mg ha -1 , but there were no differences in grain yield among tillage systems in any year or when analyzed across years. Tillage systems were economically equivalent based on market returns over total production costs, but DMT was slightly less profitable than CT based on market returns over variable costs. Economic analysis indicates that no subsidies should be required to entice producers to switch from CT to MT fallow because the systems are equally profitable. Because there is no short- or long-term economic sacrifice for converting to the soil-saving MT system, it represents a win-win solution for farmers and the environment.

(...) The newly developed wing-chisel has been effective in the once-over desiccation of stubble from recently harvested crops. Additional benefits have included deep tillage to break any existing hardpan, controlled tractor traffic by using the chisel as an in-row implement for a ridge-till planting configuration, increased infiltration rates, and maintaining plant residue on soil surface. (...)