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With the concept of resilience being increasingly applied in farming systems research, there is general agreement that the resilience theory should be supported by sound assessment methodologies. Yet, in the extant literature, definitions and measures of resilience as a system outcome, a system capability or a process are often conflated, causing conceptual and methodological ambiguities. To overcome these limitations, here we systematically review the literature on assessing the resilience of farming systems and identify patterns, including similarities and differences in underpinning theories and in methodologies. We analyzed 123 papers on how the resilience of farming systems is conceptualized and assessed. From these papers, we identified four theoretical positions (“lenses”): traditional, vulnerability, capacities, and agroecology. These lenses differ and complement each other in terms of the outcome definition of resilience (stability, transformation, and reduced vulnerability), the prominent components of resilience (capacities, practices, and resources), and the perturbations that farming systems are exposed to (shocks, exposure, and sensitivity). Collectively, these lenses offer a novel causality framework with a complementary set of causal links between perturbations, components, and outcomes. This paper suggests for the first time that resilience assessment methodologies can be further developed by drawing from the strengths and complementarities of the different perspectives. Hence, this paper identifies five design choices that need to be made in order to rigorously assess the resilience of farming systems. These concern the choice of system traits, of perturbations, of type of resilience, of contributing factors, and of resilience outcomes that will be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban agriculture is often associated with sustainable agricultural practices. However, the variety of systems qualifying as urban agriculture and the limited information available about their sustainability question this direct relationship. To better understand differences in intra-urban agriculture systems and their sustainability, this paper proposed an holistic classification of urban agricultural systems and collected knowledge about the environmental, social, and economic sustainability of these systems. Such a classification is important to evaluate sustainability claims on urban agricultural systems, anticipate potential sustainability trade-offs between urban agricultural systems and propose preventive measures to address these, and ultimately guide the sustainable deployment of these systems. Compared with existing classifications, the novel classification scheme proposed here accounts for technological, social and economic characteristics of urban agriculture systems to better distinguish between all systems. It was built on 91 scientific papers. The economic intensity of production was, for example, an important characteristic to coherently group urban agriculture systems. The intensity of cooperation between all actors was another characteristic emphasized for certain urban agriculture systems. One end of the classification scheme describes ground-based open, socially motivated urban agriculture systems with high cooperation intensity and low production intensity. The other end of the classification scheme describes building-integrated quasi-closed systems with high production intensity. In between, we find: building-integrated conditioned systems, ground-based conditioned systems, and building-integrated open systems. Mapping sustainability claims from literature in the classification scheme supported its definition along the three characteristics. For example, urban farming was associated with job creation, food safety, water savings, and higher yields while urban gardening with educational potentials, biodiversity improvements, and lower yields. Their display in the classification scheme was therefore supported. To further support the use of the proposed scheme, additional quantitative research to better understand and quantify the sustainability of urban agriculture systems is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The perennial grain intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium, commercial name KernzaTM) has been proposed as a diversification crop for producing forage and grain and providing ecosystem services to farmers. Although a few studies have addressed farmers' interests in the crop, information is lacking about the links between farmers' goals and crop management, i.e., how farmers aim at integrating this crop in their systems. Closing this gap, this paper analyzes for the first time the introduction of intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) from a farmer perspective, as a set of decision plans and goals. The overarching orientations of the farm and organization of the production system, referred as strategic decisions, interact with short-term crop management (i.e., tactical decisions) and farmers' goals for IWG. In total, 17 individual semi-structured interviews and 2 collective crop management prototyping workshops in France were used to analyze farmers' rationales as a function of their farm systems, agronomic constraints, and know-how. The study demonstrates that farmers' interests in IWG revolved around multiple ecosystem services and financial returns. Three ideal-types of farms testing IWG emerged from the relationships between existing farming systems and goals for IWG. The strategic and tactical decisions regarding the integration and management of IWG were contingent on the farming systems, the goals for IWG, the farmers' know-how, and their ability to mitigate risks. Implications for the future development of intermediate wheatgrass as a niche innovation are considered based on farmers' points of view. This study provides insights into the ideas and concerns of French farmers regarding IWG and proposes a framework for discussing the introduction of a new crop in a farm system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The livestock farming sector is under stress as fewer and fewer people are willing or able to become livestock farmers. Contributing to the decline in attractiveness of the profession are, among other factors, agricultural crises, higher consumer expectations, and difficult working conditions. Agroecology is a sustainable solution that can maintain livestock production and provide positive contributions to society without negatively affecting the environment. Moreover, in its search for social sustainability, agroecological farming could offer better working conditions to farmers and thus contribute to a sustainable future for the livestock farming sector. Here, we review research on livestock farmers' working conditions in agroecological farming systems. This paper aims to give a comprehensive overview of the available research findings and the dimensions used to describe farmers' working conditions. The major findings are the following: (i) relatively little published research is available; (ii) it is difficult to compare findings across studies as different dimensions are used to study working conditions and, in certain cases, detailed descriptions of the farming systems are not provided; (iii) certain dimensions were rarely addressed, such as farmers' health, or work organization; and (iv) in general, farmers' work is addressed as a component of environmental and economic analyses of the performance of agroecological livestock farming systems, using most often indicators on labor productivity and/or efficiency. Comprehensive multidimensional approaches to study working conditions are lacking, as are studies on the interactions and trade-offs between dimensions (e.g., workload, fulfillment, work organization). To study livestock farmers' working conditions in agroecological farming systems, we recommend to use a comprehensive approach assessing different dimensions contributing to working conditions, combined with the description of farmers' activities and work environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determinants of farmer well-being can be derived from objective and subjective measures of social components, environmental sustainability indicators, and quality of life indices, as well as the multiple scales that farms and farmers operate. Yet, despite multiple frameworks on farmer well-being, the extent to which farmer-expressed values are used in the development of farmer well-being indicators is unclear. Challenges can arise from extracting indicators that are insufficiently grounded in place, or that inadequately incorporate context and biocultural relations and practices. Here in this scoping review, we synthesize the methodologies in the literature on assessing farmer well-being and identify the extent to which farmer well-being domains are derived from values expressed directly by farmers. We consolidated and coded 92 papers to respond to the following questions: (1) What are the most frequent farmer well-being domains in published studies? (2) What methods are used to elicit multidimensional farmer well-being domains? (3) Do well-being domains used in the literature adequately reflect a biocultural context, including place-based influences on well-being? Our results show that economics and social relationships are frequent domains of how farmer well-being is identified and assessed. These domains tend to be measured simultaneously, while less common domains, such as governance and place, are rather isolated. A suite of methods was used to assess well-being domains, ranging from basic surveys to in-depth participant observation. Yet, we identify gaps in the methods for deriving farmer well-being indicators. Specifically, methods that refer to farmer-expressed values were rare and domains identified through a place-based approach were often not recorded, but, arguably, critical in developing multidimensionality of farmer well-being. We show that while the translocal approach is well represented in established well-being frameworks, farmer expression is not foundational in well-being assessments but is needed in order to center farmer values when generating indicators of well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulation models have co-evolved with agricultural research methods over the last 60 years and they are now a widely accepted and deployed component of agricultural research and development. Modelling supports research in a very diverse range of disciplines and situations, but nowhere more so than in farming systems research. The complex interactions in space and time in the face of climate variability and change that characterise contemporary farming systems research create a situation in which farming systems models are vital tools in interpreting and generalising research results. This review examines the evolution of one of the most widely used farming systems modelling platforms, the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM). The review sets the scene for APSIM development with an account of research approaches in agronomy during the 1960s and 1970s. The early innovations in crop and soil modelling in the 1980s are covered briefly and a more explicit history of APSIM development is reported from the 1990s. Reports of APSIM use and impact are reviewed over the 2000s and 2010s. The review concludes with reflections on the forces that have shaped and enabled this more than 30-year history of APSIM development and use, together with a look forward to future challenges. Recent developments in proximal and remote sensing together with advances in the power of empirical models arising from machine learning are not seen as threats but more so opportunities for sound bio-physical models to be deployed with greater effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is actively promoted as an alternative farming system that combines environmental, economic, and social sustainability. Three pillars define CA: (i) minimum mechanical soil disturbance, (ii) permanent soil organic cover, and (iii) species diversification. The local context, constraints, and needs of the farmers influence the translation of the pillars into practices. Currently, there is no method for categorizing this diversity of CA practices, which hampers impact assessment, understanding of farmer choices and pathways, stakeholder communication, and policymaking. This paper presents a systematic method to identify and categorize the diversity of CA practices at the regional level, anchored in the three pillars and based on practices implemented by CA farmers. The classification method is grounded on the intersection of an archetypal analysis and a hierarchical clustering analysis. This method was used to study CA practices in Wallonia, Belgium, based on a survey of practices in a sample of 48 farmers. Combining the two clustering methods increases the proportion of classified farmers while allowing for the distinction between three CA-types with extreme and salient practices, and two intermediate CA-types comprising farmers whose practices fall between these references. The study reveals that three explanatory factors influence the implementation of CA practices in Wallonia: (i) the proportion of tillage-intensive crops and (ii) temporary grasslands in the crop sequence, and (iii) the organic certification. These factors lead to trade-offs that hinder the three pillars of CA from being fully implemented simultaneously. This new classification method can be replicated in other regions where CA is practiced, by adapting input variables according to context and local knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continued population growth and urbanization as well as changing consumption patterns have led to an explosion in the amount of waste produced, especially in cities. To feed the world, we also need to increase agricultural production while limiting our impact on the environment. Part of the solution could be to recycle the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) as a resource for agriculture near cities with techniques such as vermicomposting, which uses earthworms to recycle organic waste into nutrient-rich vermicompost. The objective of this review was to examine (i) whether vermicomposting is appropriate for recycling OFMSW, (ii) the quality of the vermicompost produced, and (iii) the impact of this product on crops and soil parameters. We found that vermicomposting can be adapted for OFMSW recovery because the process is suitable for all the types of OFMSW (food, paper, and green waste). The vermicompost produced is both high in organic carbon (18.83-36.01%) and a potential fertilizer (1.16-2.58% N, 0.42-1.12% P, and 0.61-2.05% K). A comparison with compost from the same types of OFMSW suggested that vermicompost is slightly more suitable for crop production with significantly lower C/N and pH and higher N and P. Vermicompost was actually found to have a better effect on plant growth than compost, suggesting that classical chemical analyses are not always sufficient to characterize the potential of organic amendments/fertilizers. Indeed, the application of vermicompost in the field leads to an increase in carbon storage, water retention, enzymatic and microbiological activity, and soil fauna abundance and diversity. Finally, we found that reports on the use of vermicompost from OFMSW are scarce and most studies focused on the process itself. Overall, our review synthesizes data and the interest in this technique and proposes perspectives for future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the potential of diversification strategies to achieve sustainability, diversified systems such as agroforestry are still not widely implemented by farmers, which indicates the need to further understand and adequately assess the impacts of diversification to inform the design of complex systems. In this paper, we conduct a systematic literature review focused on agroforestry coffee systems, to assess (i) how current methods and indicators are used to quantify the impact of diversification on multiple dimensions of system sustainability, and (ii) to assess the impact of diversification through coffee agroforestry on multiple dimensions of sustainability. Our analysis was based on 215 selected papers and all the indicators identified could be classified in one of the sustainability dimensions proposed in our framework: ecosystem services (57.2%), biodiversity (35.6%), input use (4%), socio-economic sustainability (2.7%) and resilience capacity (0.5%). Despite the broad scope of the indicators, individual studies were found to often lack interdisciplinarity and a systemic view on agroecosystems. Besides, not only were there few studies that included the impacts of diversification on input use, socio-economic sustainability and resilience capacity, but specific biodiversity attributes (e.g. functional diversity, landscape diversity) and ecosystem services (e.g. soil biological quality, water regulation, pollination) were generally underreported. The impact of diversification was more positive than negative in all dimensions of sustainability, with the exception of crop productivity. Yet, diversified systems are associated with reduced costs and high yields can still be achieved in diversified systems with appropriate agricultural management (e.g. adequate number and type of shade trees). Key to reaping the benefits of diversified systems is that the diversity of elements is carefully integrated considering the impact on multiple dimensions of system sustainability. A better understanding of synergies and trade-offs remains crucial for the customized design of diverse and sustainable systems for a variety of geo-climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroecology is identified as an important solution to increase the sustainability of agricultural and food systems. Despite the increasing number of publications assessing the socio-economic outcomes of agroecology, very few studies have consolidated the scattered results obtained on various case studies. This paper provides new insights by consolidating evidence on the varied socio-economic effects of agroecology across a large number of cases at a global level. To this purpose, we used a rapid review methodology, screening more than 13,000 publications to retrieve evidence on the socio-economic outcomes of the implementation of agroecological practices. The results of the review indicate that (1) agroecological practices are associated more often with positive socio-economic outcomes across the broad range of evaluated metrics (51% positive, 30% negative, 10% neutral, and 9% inconclusive outcomes); (2) the socio-economic metrics associated with financial capital represent the vast majority of evaluated metrics (83% of total) and are affected positively in a large share of cases (53%), due to favourable outcomes on income, revenues, productivity and efficiency; (3) human capital metrics (16%) are associated with a larger number of negative outcomes (46% versus 38% positive), due to higher labour requirements and costs that are however partly compensated by an overall greater number of positive outcomes on labour productivity (55%); and (4) the results vary depending on the agroecological practice assessed; e.g. for agroforestry, we identify 53% positive outcomes while for cropping system diversification 35%. These results indicate an overall favourable potential for farms to benefit from a positive socio-economic performance with the use of agroecological practices. Yet, the magnitude, temporal aspects, and success factors related to these outcomes, as well as the trade-offs between them, and the system-level effects of an agroecological transition are to be further assessed, since they can have an important influence on the performance of individual farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a fundamental pillar of food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), ensuring seed security is critical to empowering farmers in cultivating food and livestock feed, thereby fostering income generation from agricultural outputs. Among the crops cultivated by smallholders, legumes have the potential to deliver multifaceted benefits. Legumes are nutrient-dense and enhance soil health through their nitrogen-fixing qualities. However, in many instances, the development, release, and supply of improved legume varieties are insufficient to meet the needs of smallholder farmers in SSA. Here, we systematically reviewed the literature to (i) identify and categorize existing legume seed systems, (ii) map legume varieties available to smallholders, (iii) identify barriers hindering the adoption of various legume varieties, and (iv) identify potential strategies and opportunities for strengthening legume seed systems in SSA. Our results demonstrate the coexistence of formal and informal seed systems within legume seed supply chains in SSA, each employing unique seed distribution channels. Smallholders, however, are shown to predominantly depend on the informal seed system to source most legume seeds except for commercially available varieties. We also identified a diverse range of legume varieties available to smallholders in the region, with farmers having varying trait preferences based on crop type and gender. Notably, high yield and abiotic stress tolerance were the most preferred traits. The adoption of these varieties, however, is influenced by various factors, including lack of timely access to seeds in adequate quantities from the formal seed system, high seed costs, and limited information on new varieties. The reviewed literature highlighted that utilizing improved legume varieties had a positive effect on smallholders, leading to improved welfare, food security, dietary diversity, and income. We conclude that the effective scaling of legume systems in SSA is contingent upon the presence of supportive policy frameworks and well-established technical support structures. Packets of legume seeds within a legume germplasm and breeding program at the University of Zambia (Photo by Caitlin Breen, 2022). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of cover crops in vineyards is expected to increase due to the strong encouragement by European agricultural policy and their contribution to reducing soil erosion. This paper presents the results obtained over three years in a vineyard of the “Pedro Ximénez” variety organically grown in southern Spain. The influence on production, vigor, and grape quality of a seeded cover crop versus tillage was compared using field data and imagery acquired by an uncrewed aerial vehicle. The vines under tillage showed greater vegetative development and yield than those with cover crops between rows. The grapes from the vines under the cover crop treatment ripened earlier and presented higher values of total soluble solids, characteristics that can be useful in the protected designation of origin where the study field is placed. However, the strong yield reduction caused by the cover crop treatment encourages future research to explore other cover crop species that could contribute to improving soil properties without compromising the profitability of the vineyard. This is the first time that the influence of cover cropping on the agronomic and oenological parameters of organically grown white vineyard varieties such as “Pedro Ximénez” has been assessed using field and UAV data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cropping system models are deployed as valuable tools for informing agronomic decisions and advancing research. To meet this demand, early career scientists are increasingly tasked with building crop models to fit into these system modelling frameworks. Most, however, receive little to no guidance as to how to do this well. This paper is an introduction to building a crop model with a focus on how to avoid pitfalls, minimize uncertainty, and maximize value. We synthesized knowledge from experienced model builders and literature on various approaches to model building. We describe (1) what to look for in a model-building dataset, (2) how to overcome gaps in the dataset, (3) different approaches to fitting and testing the model, and (4) how to avoid common mistakes such as over-parameterization and over-fitting the model. The process behind building a crop model can be overwhelming, especially for a beginner, and so we propose a three-pronged approach: conceptualize the model, simplify the process, and fit the model for a purpose. We revisit these three macrothemes throughout the paper to instil the new model builder with the methodical mindset needed to maximize the performance and impact of their crop model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) have brought agriculture onto the agenda of solutions to tackle climate change and sustainable development. The first KJWA roadmap came to an end in 2020. The conclusions will be reported at the UNFCCC COP 27 in 2022. Several options for the future of KJWA are on the table. We review the literature to take stock of the contribution of science to the first KJWA period and discuss on how research could help to strengthen the case for keeping up the work of KJWA. This paper reviews 175 peer-reviewed publications on technical (agricultural practices), socioeconomic, and policy actions or innovations that support and strengthen the role of sustainable agriculture on the global development agenda. The considerable diversity of science-based actions and innovations presented in the agricultural sector should contribute to the success of KJWA in putting agriculture on the climate agenda. In addition to the climate agenda, the review highlights the multi-functionality of sustainable agriculture which targets food security issues, of course, but also the 17 SDGs. Our review shows that KJWA has been extensively documented in the scientific literature on agricultural practices, the socioeconomic dimensions, and policies supporting actions. Nevertheless, research has to make special efforts (i) to set up methods that allow data comparisons and collections, and at the same time (ii) to tackle synergies and trade-offs in the achievement of the SGDs. The nexus approach could also provide a framework for the future of the KJWA process. The science-based evidence should continue to pave the way for the future KJWA to become an actionable structure within the UNFCCC arena. Echoing the previous assessment, the KJWA process should keep all stakeholders on board, including researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation Agriculture has emerged as a popular form of climate smart agriculture aimed at enhancing climate change resilience for smallholder farmers across Africa. Despite positive biophysical results, adoption rates remain low. It has been acknowledged that improved understanding of farmer decision-making is needed due to the variation in socio-economic and agro-ecological contexts which drives the research agenda to answer the question 'what forms of Conservation Agriculture work, where, and why?'. To fully understand this question, we need to approach the study of Conservation Agriculture within complex farming systems by collating and integrating different forms of knowledge. In this paper, we discuss (1) a comparison of disciplinary approaches to evaluating Conservation Agriculture in Malawi, (2) the identification of the knowledge gaps that persist at the intersection of these disciplines and (3) recommendations for alternative and interdisciplinary approaches in addressing these knowledge gaps. With a focus on published studies from Malawi, we show that the Conservation Agriculture literature represents two distinct approaches to addressing the question 'what forms of Conservation Agriculture work, where, and why?', namely agro-ecological and socio-economic and that neither of these approaches can address the full scope of this question, in particular its 'why' component. To overcome these challenges, there is a need for access to compatible, comprehensive data sets, methodological approaches including farmer participation and ethnography, through on-farm trial research as a middle ground between disciplinary approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homegarden, a type of agroforestry system, is one of the earliest thriving traditional food systems reported. Studying the contribution of homegardens in the context of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is crucial when the COVID-19 pandemic has hindered the achievement of many of the crucial SDGs. In this review, we focused on 94 peer-reviewed papers on homegardens from 2010 to 2021 to interrelate them with the corresponding targets and indicators of each SDG. The SDGs were classified into five categories, each focusing on a specific aspect: Category 1 (SDGs 1–5, poverty dimension), Category 2 (SDGs 6–9, development infrastructures), Category 3 (SDGs 10–12, sustainable production and consumption), Category 4 (SDGs 13–15, green infrastructures), and Category 5 (SDGs 16–17, green institutions). The distribution of the 94 papers analyzed was 92%, 23%, 33%, 51%, and 50% in each of the SDG categories, respectively. Category 1 and SDG 2 were found to be most realized in the homegarden literature. Important observations were found that highlight homegardens' probable use in providing food security, nutritional needs, health and wellness, preservation of agrobiodiversity, and enduring sustainability. Homegardens appear to be an important strategy for attaining the SDGs and can be accomplished with proper planning, in addition to taking into consideration how the traditional societies have sustained it for long. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decoupling of crop and livestock in space is currently threatening the sustainable development of agriculture. One of the major challenges is to identify the imbalanced space between cropland and livestock farms. This paper proposes a new methodology to identify such areas at the raster scale, without being limited by traditional administrative division restrictions. The method takes into account nutrient flow, economic cost, and spatial distributions of cropland and livestock farms. The methodology was applied to the Heihe River Basin of China as an example. First, we calculated the nutrient demands on croplands and the supply of livestock manure. Second, we proposed a new method to capture the imbalanced space between cropland and livestock farms. The method was improved on the Gaussian two-step floating catchment area (2SFA) method. To our knowledge, this is the first time such a method has been applied in agriculture. Third, we applied the maximum coverage model to select sites for manure transfer hubs in the imbalanced space of cropland and livestock farms. In this way, the distance of transferring manure can be effectively reduced. Our results showed that the total amount of manure nutrients was sufficient to meet the requirements of local crops in over 90% of the counties located within the Basin. Despite the potential benefits of manure as a fertilizer, its adoption could be more expensive than chemical fertilizers on almost 92% of the croplands due to the high transportation costs associated with spatial separation. However, the identification of 119 transfer hub sites significantly enhanced the accessibility of manure for returning to croplands, ultimately resulting in the optimization of 32% of the previously imbalanced spatial relationship between cropland and livestock farms. The method facilitates raster-scale identification of imbalanced space between cropland and livestock farms, with wide applicability across regions globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture can benefit from crop diversification to facilitate its transition to more sustainable agrifood systems. However, these practices remain rare in Europe. One major barrier is the existence of sociotechnical lock-ins. To clarify the dynamics at work, we analyzed the relationships between actors involved in 23 crop diversification experiences across 11 European countries. The novelty of this paper lies in the systemic analysis of the network of actors involved in crop diversification experiences. Using data from qualitative interviews and cognitive mapping approaches, we identify and describe the role of actors and the key relationships in crop diversification and detect relationships that are currently missing. Our study shows that in the different European countries, similar relationships act as levers or barriers to crop diversification, with farmers and researchers playing a crucial role. The most important cognitive factors that influence the choice of farmers to diversify are environmental and health concerns and the desire to make profit and innovate. We relate the cognitive factors to organizational, technical, economic, and political factors and suggest levers for crop diversification based on successful crop diversification experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is increasingly affecting agriculture worldwide, causing yield losses and undermining food security. Behind the international consensus on the urgent need for ambitious policies to adapt agriculture to climate change (AACC) hides a competition between three agricultural models—agroecology, climate-smart agriculture, and conventional agriculture—each carrying distinctive perspective on how agriculture should adapt to climate change. To date, no study has shown which of these three agricultural models is promoted the most by climate change adaptation policies. To shed light on this question, we undertook semi-structured surveys with resource persons, a literature review and a multi-criteria analysis, identifying and characterizing 226 AACC policy initiatives in seven countries or regions in the north (Andalusia, Occitanie, California, Guadeloupe) and the south (Colombia, South Africa, Senegal). Our aim was to identify (1) concrete strategic options mobilized by policy initiatives to adapt agriculture to climate change and (2) agricultural models that are implicitly or explicitly promoted by these policy initiatives. We identified 14 climate change adaptation options that mobilize a set of three complementary levers of action: (i) transforming production systems or enabling access to productive resources, (ii) providing access to knowledge that is useful for AACC, and (iii) coordinating and financing adaptation actions at territorial or sector scale. Agroecology and climate-smart agriculture are the two agricultural models favored in the mix of policy initiatives in all the studied sites. Despite conceptual differences, in real-life situations, these models do not conflict with each other since they are often promoted concomitantly. AACC policy initiatives, although diversified, seem too fragmented and not sufficiently restrictive to bring about rapid and profound change. This paper presents a new classification of AACC adaptation options, and is the first to reveal which agricultural models are promoted by policy initiatives in a wide range of regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. is one of the worst agricultural weeds and invasive species in the world, being widely established in many countries. Despite its impact on agriculture and the growing awareness of authorities and consumers about the consequences of synthetic herbicides, alternative control methods for this weed have been poorly reviewed. A systematic review of the literature published over the last 50 years was used to assess the most studied control methods of C. dactylon (excluding synthetic herbicides) and to summarize the trends and knowledge gaps. The major findings are as follows: (1) the number of publications that studied alternative methods to synthetic chemical control in C. dactylon management has been increasing exponentially since 1972; (2) most of the studies were made under controlled conditions (57%) and lack observations under real production conditions; (3) most of the field experiments were carried out in Asia (42%), under temperate subtropical and arid climates; (4) the publication of articles studying allelopathy stands out significantly (50% of the papers found), with two species from the Poaceae family, rice (Oryza sativa L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), showing very high allelopathic inhibitory effects (often above 80%), especially under open field conditions; and (5) preventive soil tillage is the most studied treatment among indirect weed control treatments, and although there is a high risk of propagation, the results indicate that tillage can significantly contribute to control C. dactylon, when compared to no-tillage treatments. Further research is needed to optimize treatments and methods so that they can be applied by farmers under real production conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This virtual issue comprises papers that address diversification for providing sustainable solutions at different scales from cropping and grassland to food systems. The authors investigated processes in case studies at the landscape scale where synergies and trade-offs between social and environmental objectives become the most tangible. Contributions from all continents highlighted regional specificities related to diversification and include research from natural and social sciences, with inter- and transdisciplinary approaches including synthesis of knowledge (reviews), empirical studies with experiments as well as assessments with interviews in case studies: Model-based design of crop diversification, the role of digitalization for achieving sustainability in the European context, ecological engineering for rice pest suppression in China, the role of cereal species mixtures in Ethiopian smallholder farmers, diversified planting in arid irrigation areas in northwestern China, integration of legumes in European and Canadian cropping systems, screening of native forage legumes for northern Swedish grassland systems, cropping system diversification of smallholder farmers in south-central Bangladesh, identification of how farmers imagine diversified landscapes in southern Idaho in the US, farm diversification affecting impacts from COVID-19 across Europe, the role of diversified farming in Mato Grosso Brazil, diversification and soil management measures in Germany, value chain formation for the scaling of crop diversification, and the design process with farmers and scientists for the transition toward legume-supported farming in Europe. A key finding from these examples is that agricultural intensification has led to the simplification of cropping systems and landscapes in terms of species diversity and ecosystem function. To instead move towards sustainable transformation, all system levels (i.e. from the plot, farm, landscape, governance and overall food systems) need to interact and reinforce each other for diversification to deliver the desired outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is the largest soybean-consuming country in the world, but its self-sufficiency rate (SSR) of 16% is very low and it therefore has to heavily rely on imports. To solve the soybean dilemma in China, it is necessary to examine the maximum amount of soybean that could be grown on the land currently used, how much land could reasonably be used to expand soybean acreage, and whether China could sustainably increase soybean self-sufficiency to reduce the risks of import reliance. To answer these questions, our paper presents a high-resolution spatial analysis of potential soybean production in China using primary data of weather and crop production practices that govern this potential. We employed a "bottom-up" scaling protocol to estimate gaps between potential yield with optimal management and current yields in three major soybean-planting regions, namely, Northeast China, Central China, and South China. We found that current soybean yield gap (Yg) in China is 49% and 45% of potential yield under irrigated and rainfed cropping systems, respectively. By closing the yield gap, Northeast China could provide additional soybean production equivalent to 32% of the current national total. Our results show that SSR could only be increased to 21–23% in 2030 by Yg closure alone but could be increased to a maximum of 52% by combining Yg closure and a reasonable area expansion. Even so, at least 61.08 million tons of soybean accounting for 38% of global soybean trade would still need to be imported to meet future domestic demand. We discuss strategies for soybean production increase based on Yg closure in the most valuable areas and cropland expansion in a sustainable manner in order to increase SSR as well as lessen the import pressure on the global market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Duru et al. (Agron Sustain Dev 35:1259-1281, 2015) highlighted a missing tool for studying and improving the performance of cropping systems in the transition to highly diversified agriculture. In response, this paper proposes a concept for designing, modeling, monitoring, and auditing desired ecosystem services, in intercropping and agroforestry systems. We have labelled this concept ESSU (Ecosystem Services functional Spatial Unit). It delimits the smallest spatial unit encompassing all the interacting species and other functional components (e.g., crops, trees, livestock, spontaneous vegetation, semi-natural habitats such as hedges, ditches, forest patches, and animals) that together provide a specified set of ecosystem services. The novel ESSU concept allows representation of an entire diversified agroecosystem by the repetition of the spatial unit that provides the same sets of targeted ecosystem services as the agroecosystem it represents. It can then be used for various activities, such as the (i) design of more efficient agroecological systems according to the targeted ecosystem services; (ii) rapid audit of farming practices for biodiversity/resilience across large tracts of farmland as part of achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2 targets of sustainable food systems; and (iii) modeling such diversified agroecosystems using a motif adapted to represent the targeted ecosystem services and the species spacing design. We demonstrate that the ESSU concept is highly flexible and applicable to a wide range of diversified agroecosystems, like arable intercropping, crop-tree intercropping, tree-tree agroforestry, and agro-pastoralism. We also show its relevance and suitability for representing temporal changes over 1 year, across several years, and over decades, indicating its generalizability and flexibility. We argue that ESSU could open new theoretical and practical research avenues for the study of diversified agroecosystems. Considered with all the knowledge available on practices, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, ESSU might provide a learning-support tool to fill the knowledge gap about relationships among practices, biodiversity, and associated ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black polyethylene (PE) film is used for mulching in processing tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum P. Mill.) in Spain achieving a generally high weed control but causing a serious waste problem. Few herbicides are available for tomato, so that a biodegradable mulching is the desired solution which should provide high yield, high weed control and be economically available. For 3 years, the same field trial was carried out in four areas of Spain using the following mulch materials in processing tomatoes: (1) untreated control, (2) manual weeding, (3) PE, black, 15 μm thick, (4) and (5) two types of biodegradable plastic mulch, black, 15 μm, (6) oxo-degradable plastic mulch, black, 15 μm, (7) paper mulch, black, 85 g m, (8) kraft paper mulch, brown, 140 g m and (9) barley straw, 1 kg m. Weed control, yield and economic aspects were analysed. Most frequent weed species were Convolvulus arvensis, Chenopodium album and Amaranthus spp. Here, we showed that despite differences in weed species, soil type and years, weed competition caused a similar yield decrease in all locations. A common regression coefficient could be estimated indicating that weed competition was responsible for a yield decrease of 3.3 to 4.4 t ha for each 10% of efficacy loss. Weed control was high for biodegradable plastics, paper mulches and PE ranging between 80% and 100% for all of them; also, yield was similar for all plastic and paper mulching treatments ranging between 72% and 108% of the yield achieved by PE. Here, we demonstrate that technically viable biodegradable alternatives exist for all four locations. From the economic point of view, PE gave highest benefits, mainly due to its low market price and to high yields despite removal costs, showing that its substitution will depend on prohibition. For locations with low-density weed infestations, manual weeding can be an alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture should now provide not only high yields but also sustainable development with a sound management of the diversity of ecosystems. Due to this increased complexity of objectives, models have recently become major tools that can integrate several parameters. Failure to apply models outside research is however a major issue. Here, to identify the precise grounds of this failure, we analyzed what models are intended for by scientists during their design. We performed a literature analysis on agronomic modelling practices. Specifically, we analyzed 518 scientific article abstracts reporting either new models or improved existing models. Articles were published in eight mainstream agronomy journals over a 10-year period. We also analyzed 25 full-text contents randomly selected from the initial dataset. In order to assess how models match the uses they are intended for, we first analyzed the design methodology used to build models. Second, we studied how authors defined the potential use of models by analyzing both the claimed objectives and references to model use and users. We then compared our findings on design methodology with our findings on intended use. Our results first show that the design methodology for modelling is presented as a segmented and standardized process. Each article refers to one or more of the following six steps to describe the design process for modelling: (1) description of the model structure, inputs, outputs and validity domain, (2) description of the data used to build the model, (3) model formalism, (4) calibration parameterisation, (5) validation, and (6) application. We found that information about the design process like iterations, errors, improvements is never emphasized in the abstracts, whereas this information is sometimes quoted in the full-text contents. This finding demonstrates that the design methodology for modelling is not addressed as a research topic. Second, we show that whereas 88.8% of authors claim in their abstracts that the major objective of their models is to improve understanding as opposed to support action, 19.5% of authors also quote a possible use of their models outside research. The initial objective of understanding is thus extended to use the models as tools for action. Overall, we conclude that the agricultural research community is not highly concerned by the effects of the design methodology on the suitability of the model structure and on potential applications. Moreover, although the six steps of the design process may be appropriate for designing models devoted to improve understanding, no specific methods are proposed to design models for action. We did not find evidence that the modellers connect the design of the model with its use by end-users. We suggest that this issue could be solved by developing participatory methodology design involving end-users in model design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri-food system transitions are a considerable challenge requiring stakeholder alignment on what changes need to be made and how. When stakeholders do not agree on the goals or methods of a transition, this can be a serious obstacle to success. This paper analyzes 42 vision documents for the future of Dutch agriculture from a broad range of stakeholders to determine stakeholder alignment using an inductive coding approach. We identified 23 issues as the main challenges for the transition in these documents. We are the first to categorize them according to a recently proposed problem-solution space for wicked problems. Stakeholders were fully aligned in recognizing the problem for the majority of issues, but showed agreement on solutions for less than a quarter. For the issues of international orientation, sector size, and farm business models, we found a lack of consensus on the problem, indicating fundamental disagreement about the type of agricultural sector desired by stakeholders. The apparent consensus on environmental and social issues provides clear societal expectations for agronomic development and innovation, while the divergence on economic issues highlights the rift between growth-oriented paradigms and more holistic paradigms like agroecology. The crucial empirical novelty of this paper is that progress on environmental and social matters is restricted by divergent views on the economic characteristics of a future agri-food system, adding further complexity to mission-oriented transition and innovation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock production is confronted with significant challenges across all dimensions of sustainability. There is an urgent need to identify sustainable livestock systems that are environmentally friendly, economically viable for farmers, and socially acceptable. To this end, diversity assessments and data-driven indicator-based sustainability assessments can be helpful tools. These two mutually reinforcing approaches each have their own dilemmas and strengths; however, their combination is not straightforward. In this paper, we propose a method that simultaneously assesses the diversity and sustainability of production systems within one agricultural sector, without compromising either aspect, while overcoming the dilemmas of diversity and sustainability assessments. We test our method on the Walloon dairy and beef sectors (Belgium) and base our assessment on data from the European Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN). We apply relevant classification criteria to the sample farms to group them into production systems. The core data was complemented with calculated environmental indicators to perform a comprehensive sustainability assessment, including structural, socio-economic, and environmental indicators. Our results confirm the importance of complementing sustainability assessments with diversity assessments. Our case study results show that a diversity of livestock systems coexist and that it is possible to overcome trade-offs between economic and environmental performances. Extensive grass-based systems present the best combination of economic and environmental results, which highlights the importance of preserving grassland resources at the regional level. The proposed method proves effective to improve the relevance of FADN data and supports the ongoing call to transform the FADN into a more comprehensive database that satisfactorily covers all dimensions of sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heavy use of synthetic pesticides in agriculture has been responsible for detrimental effects on human and environmental health, making it necessary to develop more sustainable pest management strategies. A promising approach consists in the integration within cropping systems of agricultural techniques producing bottom-up effects or supporting top-down regulation of crop pests. However, there is still a lack of information on the extent to which this approach is currently being developed. In this paper, we review the last 10 years of published literature on the use in annual cash crops of three agricultural techniques: (i) crop spatial diversification, (ii) crop temporal diversification, and (iii) soil management influencing crop pests either through bottom-up effects or by supporting the top-down regulation of four categories of bioprotection agents: (i) macro- and (ii) micro-organisms, (iii) semiochemicals, and (iv) natural substances. We found that each agricultural technique is adopted to support a specific bioprotection category and to control a specific pest taxon. Crop spatial diversification was generally found to target herbivorous insects and to support macro-organism bioprotection agents. Crop temporal diversification and soil management mainly targeted pathogenic fungi and supported microorganism bioprotection agents. Despite the widespread idea that semiochemicals and natural substances are promising agents for pest regulation, their adoption remains largely unexplored. We also found that agricultural techniques are mostly adopted to support bioprotection in a conservation biological control approach while ignoring augmented bioprotection. In addition, the top-down regulation by means of bioprotection supported by agricultural techniques is just as effective against crop pests as the bottom-up effect produced by the agricultural techniques alone. We argue that a concerted effort to integrate bioprotection with agricultural techniques would open new research opportunities to reduce synthetic pesticide inputs fostering the transition from a conventional agriculture towards sustainable agroecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main hurdle in instrumentalizing agricultural soils to sequester atmospheric carbon is the development of methods to measure soil carbon stocks which are robust, scalable, and widely applicable. Our objective is to develop an approach that can help overcome these hurdles. In this paper, we present the Wageningen Soil Carbon STOck pRotocol (SoilCASTOR). SoilCASTOR uses a novel approach fusing satellite data, direct proximal sensing-based soil measurements, and machine learning to yield soil carbon stock estimates. The method has been tested and applied in the USA on fields with agricultural land use. Results show that the estimates are precise and repeatable and that the approach could be rapidly scalable. The precision of farm C stocks is below 5% enabling detection of soil organic carbon changes desired for the 4 per 1000 initiative. The assessment can be done robustly with as few as 0.5 sample per hectare for farms varying from 20 to 150 hectares. These findings could enable the structural implementation of carbon farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the acknowledged benefits of crop diversification, the transition towards more diversified cropping systems needs to be supported, mainly due to socio-technical lock-ins favoring major dominant crop species. This calls for the development of new approaches to support the design of locally tailored diversified cropping systems. This paper aims to present an original participatory and multi-actor design approach, developed to support the introduction of camelina (Camelina sativa) into the cropping systems of northern France and to provide some insights about the characteristics, the specificities, and the limits of this approach to support its use and adaptation to other contexts. For 3 years, and in connection with the development of an oilseed biorefinery, we gathered a variety of actors (farmers, advisors, engineers in agronomy, researchers, and industrialists) to locally support the introduction of camelina in the cropping systems. First, we illustrate the diversity of the modalities that have been collectively imagined to introduce and manage camelina in the local cropping systems. Then, we describe the originality and the diversity of the knowledge produced on camelina, especially during the assessment of some of these modalities within on-farm experiments. Finally, drawing on concepts and theories from design sciences, we show that (i) the pre-existence of networks of actors, (ii) the rationale involvement of the actors, (iii) the implementation of a situated design process fueled by action and distributed among actors, (iv) the sharing and the circulation of knowledge among a diversity of actors involved in the production and use of the new crop, and (v) the implementation of an effective network management contributed to foster the three key elements that we identified as crucial to support crop diversification, namely, the production of actionable knowledge, the exploration of new ideas/concepts, and the active participation of a diversity of actors of the agri-food system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Factors affecting fertilizer decisions made by grain growers are changing in the context of changing climatic conditions and growing volatility in global fertilizer and grain markets. To ensure sustainable development of grain industries in light of this uncertainty, research, development, extension, and adoption activities associated with growers' fertilizer decisions need to be focused on factors to which they are most sensitive. The aim of this paper is to understand the factors that have the greatest influence on grain producer's fertilizer strategies, how these factors have changed over recent years, and what is the relative importance of agronomic, socioeconomic, and logistical factors affecting these strategies. A telephone survey of 425 grain-growing businesses in Western Australia was conducted, and survey results were analyzed statistically. We show for the first time that grain growers' fertilizer decisions are most sensitive to agronomic factors (especially the amount and distribution of rainfall). Logistic factors (such as difficulties fertilizing increasing areas in short periods of time) are growing in influence as farm size, cropping areas, and the number of fertilizer applications within seasons increase. Fertilizer decisions have become less sensitive to socioeconomic factors over the last 10 to 15 years. To ensure sustainable development of grain production, research through to adoption activities should focus on agronomic issues (such as seasonal forecasting) and logistic issues (such as improving planning, organizational, and technical capacity for developing and implementing fertilizer strategies). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainability of agriculture is questioned due to major negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts. To improve the state of agriculture, various management changes have been proposed. Different tools, with varying characteristics, sustainability framing and indicators, have been used to evaluate the impact of these changes on sustainability. Here, we review 119 tools for farm sustainability assessment and compare their use, sustainability dimensions, themes and types of indicators used for biodiversity conservation, farm viability and gender equity. Our main findings are that (1) tools could be classified into five groups that differ in stakeholder participation and model used for calculating sustainability, (2) seven different sustainability framings are used and (3) only two out of 29 indicators screened address impacts of farming system while the others address drivers, pressures or states of the system. The tools were grouped in "Long-term monitoring of farm activities" (11%), "Ex-ante assessment of sustainability with bioeconomic models" (9%), "Survey- and indicator-based assessment of tools" (41%), "Consultation-based assessment" (25%) and "Active engagement of stakeholder-based assessment" (14%). The "classical view of sustainability", with the economic, social and environmental pillars, was used in 61% of the papers. Based on these findings, we suggest (1) development of temporal dynamic assessment of farm sustainability with active involvement of stakeholders in the framing of sustainability and design of indicators to achieve reliable and relevant assessment outcomes. We recommend (2) adoption of more complex sustainability framings dealing with emerging system properties, namely resilience, viability and stability. In these, (3) governance/institutional dimensions should be emphasised, and social themes targeting farmers' characteristics should be included. Finally, (4) use of impact indicators in farm sustainability assessments is critical, and they should be designed to contribute to scientifically rigorous and relevant assessments of farming system sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the empirical literature on the determinants of farmer adoption of sustainable intensification technologies in maize agri-food systems of the Global South. The attributes of the technology and the dissemination institutions interact with farm/farmer-specific variables, leading to heterogeneous impacts, making the prediction of technology adoption challenging. However, most empirical studies oversimplify the adoption process and examine only the farm/farmer-specific variables as the determinants of adoption, thereby limiting the scope of learning on how the attributes of the technology and the dissemination system could have been altered to realize a more efficient and more inclusive technological change. We argue for a realignment of empirical adoption analysis for better implications through a conscious rejection of the assumption that the onus of technology performance rests solely with the farmer. Here we review the studies published between 2007 and 2018 on the adoption of sustainable intensification technologies in maize systems of the Global South to examine how the adoption models are currently dependent on the farm/farmer attributes vis-à-vis the attributes of technologies and disseminating institutions. The main findings from a synthesis of 137 adoption studies are threefold. (1) Limited information access and technologies not suitable for the small landholdings were the major constraints of farmer adoption of technologies. (2) The criticisms on the conventional adoption analysis concerning oversimplification and decontextualization of the decision-making process are reaffirmed. (3) The empirical adoption research needs to incorporate the attributes of technologies and the socio-institutional context to develop better research strategies toward inclusive agrarian development. We examine how the framework of the socioeconomic analysis can be reconstructed to facilitate the research and development (R&D) institutions to overcome the major hurdles of rapid and inclusive dissemination. Evaluation of the degree to which the attributes of technology favor its adoption requires increased research attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural mechanization is on the rise in Africa. A widespread replacement of manual labor and animal traction will change the face of African agriculture. Despite this potentially transformative role, only a few studies have looked at the effects of mechanization empirically, mostly focusing on yields and labor alone. This is the first paper that explores perceived agronomic, environmental, and socioeconomic effects together, thereby revealing linkages and trade-offs, some of which have been hitherto unknown. Data were collected using a novel data collection method called "participatory impact diagrams" in four countries: Benin, Kenya, Nigeria, and Mali. In 129 gendered focus group discussions, 1330 respondents from 87 villages shared their perceptions on the positive and negative effects of agricultural mechanization, and developed causal impact chains. The results suggest that mechanization is likely to have more far-reaching agronomic, environmental, and socioeconomic consequences than commonly assumed. Most perceived effects were positive, suggesting that mechanization can help to reduce poverty and enhance food security but other effects were negative such as deforestation, soil erosion, land-use conflicts, and gender inequalities. Accompanying research and policy efforts, which reflect variations in local agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions, are needed to ensure that mechanization contributes to an African agricultural transformation that is sustainable from a social, economic, and environmental perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Productivity of coffee plantations is threatened by both climate change and decreasing revenues of coffee growers. Using shade trees might protect against temperature variability, erosion and excessive radiation but there may be trade-offs in productivity and quality. While impacts of shade trees on arabica (Coffea arabica) have been reviewed, a global synthesis on robusta (Coffea canephora) coffee is lacking. We assessed how shade affects robusta growth and productivity, and what are the interactions and trade-offs. We conducted a systematic literature search in Web of Science and CAB Abstracts on 16 December 2019. Thirty papers fulfilled our inclusion criteria of being experimental studies on the impact of overstory trees with approximately half being from Brazil or India. Shade improved robusta tree growth and yield with some contrasting effects on physicochemical and biochemical properties. Shade (> 30%) was associated with reduced beverage quality. Significant interactions between shade and location, rainfall level and robusta clone were found. Among the clones tested, 06V, C153, LB1, GG229 and JM2 showed a higher productivity and growth (from + 17 to + 280%) under moderate shade (41–65%). This is the first meta-analysis of the effects of shade on robusta coffee. By synthesizing data from different studies, we highlight for the first time that the effect of shade on robusta coffee depends on tree age. Shade had positive impacts on older robusta trees (mean of 16 years), while the impact of shade on younger trees was either insignificant or negative. We highlight the importance of both clone type and tree ages. Research gaps included a lack of knowledge on the effects of shade with respect to coffee and shade tree age as well as interactive effects. More in-depth studies are needed to understand the mechanisms of how shade trees affect robusta coffee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development and dissemination of sustainable practices are key to enhance agricultural productivity in developing countries and to curtail potential negative externalities. Rigorous adoption/impact evaluations provide valuable lessons to enhance the capacity of agricultural research-for-development (R4D) systems in this context. Conventional evaluation studies rely solely on farm-household surveys for data. Generation of survey data however requires considerable financial and human capital, and the process often misses several important explanatory variables, ignores the longer-term impacts, and suffers from measurement errors. Complementary data sources are explored to make the evaluations more robust and rigorous. Here we review 54 studies that used satellite data to estimate adoption and impact of agricultural practices in developing countries. Some evidence on successful application of satellite data in high-income countries is also provided. The main findings of the paper are threefold: (1) satellite data have been successfully used to detect agricultural practices, such as cropping intensity, tillage, crop residue cover, irrigation, and soil and water conservation; (2) only a few studies have estimated the yield impacts of agricultural practices, although the estimation of crop yields with satellite data is fairly developed; and (3) only a small number of studies have explored impact estimation beyond the biophysical sphere. Estimation of certain environmental impacts of agricultural practices is possible through satellite data, although only a few studies have carried it out. Not many have assessed the economic impacts of interventions. We conclude that satellite data analysis allows information access with little delay and over longer periods, provide a unique set of variables over wide geographies, and reduce measurement error in certain variables. However, more interdisciplinary research is necessary to speed up the uptake of this alternative data source in R4D evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intercropping is a mature and well-known agronomic practice that began to attract interest from the scientific community in the mid-1900s and has known an exponential growth in research activity since the beginning of this century. Over the years, different intercropping indices have been developed to evaluate the performance of this crop production system in comparison to standard monoculture practices. Nowadays, more than 20 of these intercropping indices have been described in scientific literature. This review aims to review these indices and check their performance using a meta-dataset consisting of data points from various intercropping experiments that have been described in peer-reviewed publications. Our results show that different indices evaluate different aspects of intercropping trials and that commonly used indices generally do not capture the full performance of the system. More specifically, intercropping results are influenced by both the total sowing density and the crop ratio and indices differ in the way that these dependencies are accounted for. This study suggests creating a standard protocol for the intercropping trials and their evaluation as crucial elements to optimize intercropping research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews and analyzes the impact of residue burning on the environment and human health, and the influence of ex-situ and in-situ residue management on reducing pollution and improving soil health, crop yield, and farmers' economic benefits. Paddy is cultivated on 43.8 Mha in India, producing 118.43 Mt grain and an estimated 165.8 Mt straw. Burning is the most common practice for managing rice crop residues mainly due to its simplicity, low cost, increased mechanical harvesting, short window between rice harvest and wheat sowing, and lack of viable uses for residues. Around 50 Mt of rice straw is burned annually, nearly half of which occurs in northwestern India during October/November. Burning residue is a major contributor to air pollution, emitting around 1.5 Mt particulate matter, 150 Mt carbon dioxide, and other greenhouse gases (e.g., NO2, SO2, CO, CH4, NH3) and volatile organic compounds, resulting in a wide range of respiratory infections in humans, reduced soil nutrient and carbon inputs, and disturbed soil microbial activity. In-situ residue management using a Happy Seeder, Super straw management system, paddy straw chopper cum spreader, reversible moldboard plow, or no-till seeder incorporates or mulches residues, avoiding burnings. These operations are economically profitable as they reduce costs, increase yields, or both. In-situ residue management, i.e., incorporation or mulching improves the soil's physical, chemical and biological properties and is considered better for improving soil health than residue removal. Ex-situ residue management for biofuel, biochar, electricity generation or bale making is also profitable for the environment and reduces pollutant emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dates are a traditional and important part of the sustainable arid food system. As their popularity is growing worldwide, along with global climate change, there is an increasing need for a better understanding of the environmental aspects of the date production system. Israel is one of the major sources of the Medjool variety of dates. We use an environmental "footprint family" framework to analyze Medjool date production, and direct and indirect environmental interactions, and identify positive and negative hotspots. The research focuses on the Israeli Arava desert region. We found that producing 1 ton of marketable dates has an average material footprint of 1550 kg, a land footprint of 1 m2, and a water footprint of 2450 m3, which leads to 990 kg of solid waste and a carbon footprint of 4820 kg of CO2eq. The cultivation stage was responsible for most of the footprints, mainly due to the direct and indirect consequences of fertilizer usage and water production and intake. The significant differences between the plantations were traced back to their varying mix of palms' age and even more to the human factor and the cultivation methods of individual farmers. We suggest that the environmental footprint of dates can be reduced by adopting improved agricultural methods, such as lower-impact fertilizers and renewable energy. This paper is one of the first to embrace a systematic approach to analyzing dates grown in a desert area. These data can bridge the knowledge gap over the unique food system and crop and, therefore, can provide an initial data body for future research, policy-makers, and farmers as means to advance more efficient, less-intensive use of resources while enhancing production in arid areas and support local and global food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To promote greater sustainability in agriculture, development of agroecology is increasingly being invoked. What are the conditions for establishing agroecological production in tropical regions? Based upon case studies in several tropical areas, we provide here some answers to this question. We review the "pillars" (i.e. principles) and the "implementation levers" (i.e., tools) for the development of agroecology. We identify three main pillars: (1) the mobilization and management of ecological processes for the sustainable production and the resilience of agroecosystems; (2) the development of interactions between technical, social, environmental, and institutional components of agroecosystems for a holistic approach to agroecology; and (3) the scaling up of agroecology that takes place with a plurality of actions and pathways at different organization levels rather than an increase in resources and a replication of standardized technical processes. To implement these three pillars, we identify 11 main bio-technical, cognitive, socio-political, and organizational levers. Bio-technical levers include those for (1) mobilizing complementarity between crop species to optimize natural resources use, (2) mobilizing functional biodiversity at the plot scale to optimize natural regulation of pests and diseases, (3) managing biodiversity at landscape and territorial scales, (4) increasing the efficiency of biogeochemical cycles, and (5) renewing targets for genetic improvement. Cognitive, socio-political, and organizational levers include those for (6) political and institutional action at the national and global level, (7) action at the local level to support producers, (8) political and organizational action at the territorial level, (9) the marketing and the development of new agri-chains, (10) the development of new methods for evaluating production systems, and (11) the recognition of the values of gender and generation within families and other organisational levels. This paper provides an overall orientation for the agroecological transition in tropical agriculture and also considers the socio-political context that underlies this transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the benefits associated with winter soil cover before sowing a spring crop, this practice is adopted unevenly by farmers. The goal of this paper is to identify and hierarchize the main soil-climate factors that hinder the adoption of cover crops. It is the first study to carry out this analysis at the scale of France, which is a country with a wide variety of soil types and climates. For this country, maps of vegetated winter soil cover prior to the establishment of a spring crop were previously produced for years 2018 and 2019, using Sentinel-2 multispectral images. For approximately half of France’s acreage with spring crops, the estimation concerning the presence or absence of a winter cover crop was correlated here with the main soil-climate factors of each field. The inclusion within Nitrate Vulnerable Zones is another potentially important variable to explain cover crop adoption, as regulatory requirements of the Nitrates Directives strongly encourage winter soil cover in these zones to reduce nitrogen losses. Because of the regulatory requirements of the Nitrates Directives regarding winter soil cover, the influence of being located in a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone was also evaluated. But despite these incentives for winter soil cover, inclusion in a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone had little influence on cover crop adoption. Principal component analyses performed for different crop rotations showed that the clay content was the soil-climate factor most negatively correlated with the adoption of cover crops. Cover crops were more frequently established on sandy fields with high organic carbon stocks, which corresponds rather to the characteristics of livestock regions. The development of technical solutions for the establishment and destruction of winter cover crops on clay soils could facilitate the adoption of these crops, and thus improve global water quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa farmers must decide on whether to rehabilitate (Rh) or to renovate (Re) a cocoa orchard when its productivity declines due to ageing, disease outbreaks or other causes. Deciding on Rh/Re is often a complex, expensive and conflictive process. In this review, we (1) explore the diversity of contexts, driving forces, stakeholders and recommended management practices involved in Rh/Re initiatives in key cocoa-producing countries; (2) summarise the often conflicting views of farmers and extension agents on Rh/Re programmes; (3) review the evidence of age-related changes in planting density and yield of cocoa, given the weight of these variables in Rh/Re decision processes; (4) describe the best known Rh/Re systems and their most common management practices; (5) propose an agroforestry Re approach that overcomes the limitation of current Rh/Re diagnosis protocols, which do not consider the regular flow of food crop and tree products, and the need to restore site soil quality to sustain another cycle of cultivation of cocoa at the same site; and (6) explore the effects of climate change considerations on Rh/Re decision-making and implementation processes. Each Rh/Re decision-making process is unique and highly context-dependent (household and farm, soil, climate, culture). Tailored solutions are needed for each farmer and context. The analysis, concepts and models presented for cocoa in this paper may also apply to coffee orchards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last few years, an increasing number of agricultural R&D actors have sought to discover and get to know farmers' practices that they consider as innovative, unconventional, or promising. We refer to these approaches, all of which aim to support the design of farming systems, as 'farmer innovation tracking'. There is still a lack of knowledge, however, about the specificities of the approaches adopted to track innovations and how they contribute to design processes. To explore these questions, we studied 14 initiatives in France led by actors from different R&D networks. We analysed the data collected using agronomy and design science concepts. Three outcomes emerge from this work. (1) We shed light on the common features of innovation tracking. We outline five stages that structure all the approaches: formulating an innovation tracking project, unearthing innovations, learning about them, analysing them, and generating agronomic content. (2) We characterize six contributions of farmer innovation tracking to design processes: giving rise to creative anomalies, shedding light on systemic mechanisms to fuel design processes on other farms, uncovering research questions, stimulating design in orphan fields of innovation, circulating innovation concepts, and connecting farmer-designers with each other. (3) Finally, we highlight three tracking strategies: the targeted tracking of proven practices, the targeted tracking of innovations under development, and the exploratory tracking of proven practices. This article is the first to propose a theorization of the farmer innovation tracking approaches, thus enriching the agronomic foundations supporting farming system design. The purpose of our paper is not to provide a turnkey method, but to highlight concepts, mechanisms, and points of reference for actors who might wish to develop farmer innovation tracking in different contexts in the future. By revealing their contributions to design processes, this article seeks to contribute to the institutionalization of innovation tracking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On low-lying land in the Ganges Delta, waterlogging, salinity, and poor soil structure are constraints to intensifying cropping systems. Early sowing of dry season (rabi) crops in this area is hypothesized to increase yield potential because the current late sowing exposes the crop to less favourable temperature conditions, soil dryness, and salinity stresses. Field experiments were conducted over 2 years to identify the opportunities and challenges of early sowing between mid-November and mid-December for maximizing sunflower yield in Southern Bangladesh. Sunflower was dibbled into untilled wet soil on five occasions (23 and 30 November and 10, 20, and 30 December in 2016–2017 and 25 November, 14 and 25 December, and 10 and 25 January in 2017–2018), with two mulching treatments (rice straw at ~ 5 t ha−1 and 15–20% rice residue retention). Sowing before 15 December was associated with larger heads, more seeds per head, greater seed weight, and higher grain yield (3.5–4 t ha−1) in the first year, but early sowing was also risky since, in the second year, the sunflower sown on 25 November was hampered by heavy rainfall, which depressed yield compared to crops sown on 15 December. Increased yield from early sowing before 15 December was associated with higher soil water, lower soil salinity, and higher solute potential compared to sowing after 15 December. Lower yield in late sown crops was also associated with increased temperature at grain-filling stage. The rice straw mulch significantly improved soil water availability, reduced soil salinity, increased soil solute potential, and increased yield in the second year. In this paper, we show for the first time that sunflower sown before 15 December in the Ganges Delta has higher yield potential, but to gain the benefits of the earliest sowing, growers will need to manage the increased risk of yield loss due to waterlogging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development of new wheat cultivars combining good local adaptation, disease resistance and grain quality represents an important strategy component for national food security. Uzbekistan was identified by N. Vavilov as important center of wheat diversity. An inventory of landraces was conducted in 2010–2013 in western Tien-Shan Mountains to survey, collect, and characterize old wheats still grown by farmers. Thirty landraces were collected from 17 villages in Jizzakh, Kashkadarya and Surkhandarya Regions. The material went through spike selection, head-rows, un-replicated trials in Tashkent, Uzbekistan (2012–2015), and replicated trials in Konya, Turkey (2018–2019). Landrace diversity was described using spike morphological traits and DNA profiles as reflected by single nucleotide polymorphism. A socioeconomic survey demonstrated that wheat landraces are grown in remote mountain communities by subsistence farmers despite having access to modern cultivars, and both are frequently grown together. The main reasons for the maintenance of landraces are: (1) large grain with excellent bread-making quality and suitability for home-baking; (2) specific adaptations allowing stable and reliable yield; and (3) straw yield and quality. Similar genomic profiles shared by some landraces from remote regions of Uzbekistan and neighboring Tajikistan demonstrated their common origin and are indicative of seed exchange between farmers. Agronomic characterization demonstrated the resilient nature of their adaptation based on spring and facultative growth habit and superiority of some landraces for grain yield and its components compared to local checks. Viable options for maintaining and expanding on-farm wheat diversity include their improvement through selection and breeding, market development, variable incentives, and capacity building. For the first time, this paper presents results of a unique 10-year study in Uzbekistan on social conditions in the areas where wheat landraces are grown, analyses the diversity of these landraces, evaluates agronomic characteristics, and discusses the sustainability options for on-farm wheat landraces use and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversification of cropping systems has the potential to contribute towards a sustainable land use while preserving biodiversity. Mixed cropping is one possibility to increase biodiversity within farming systems. However, adoption of mixed cropping systems is challenging for farmers, as the agricultural sector has evolved around pure stands over the past decades and path dependencies have emerged. Yet, little is known about farmers’ motivation to adopt mixed cropping. Utilizing the theory of planned behavior as the main framework, this paper studies the psychological factors underlying farmers’ intention to adopt mixed cropping based on an online survey with 172 German farmers. In addition, the most crucial adoption obstacles are assessed. Using partial least squares structural equation modeling, we show for the first time that attitude, perceived behavioral control, and injunctive as well as descriptive group norms explain over 52% of farmers’ intention to adopt mixed cropping. Our results also demonstrate that perceived ecological benefits positively influence a farmer’s attitude towards mixed cropping. Missing sales opportunities for mixed yields, the uneven maturing of crops, and deficient economic benefits are ranked as the most crucial obstacles for the implementation of mixed cropping. These results, which can be relevant for other European countries as well, indicate that the introduction of a voluntary agri-environmental scheme could encourage adoption and that considering positive effects of group norms within policy schemes could further increase adoption on a large scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is consensus that the global food system is not delivering good nutrition for all and is causing environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity, such that a profound transformation is needed to meet the challenges of persistent malnutrition and rural poverty, aggravated by the growing consequences of climate change. Agroecological approaches have gained prominence in scientific, agricultural and political discourse in recent years, suggesting pathways to transform agricultural and food systems that address these issues. Here we present an extensive literature review of concepts, definitions and principles of agroecology, and their historical evolution, considering the three manifestations of agroecology as a science, a set of practices and a social movement; and relate them to the recent dialogue establishing a set of ten iconic elements of agroecology that have emerged from a global multi-stakeholder consultation and synthesis process. Based on this, a consolidated list of principles is developed and discussed in the context of presenting transition pathways to more sustainable food systems. The major outcomes of this paper are as follows. (1) Definition of 13 consolidated agroecological principles: recycling; input reduction; soil health; animal health; biodiversity; synergy; economic diversification; co-creation of knowledge; social values and diets; fairness; connectivity; land and natural resource governance; participation. (2) Confirmation that these principles are well aligned and complementary to the 10 elements of agroecology developed by FAO but articulate requirements of soil and animal health more explicitly and distinguish between biodiversity and economic diversification. (3) Clarification that application of these generic principles can generate diverse pathways for incremental and transformational change towards more sustainable farming and food systems. (4) Identification of four key entry points associated with the elements: diversity; circular and solidarity economy; co-creation and sharing of knowledge; and, responsible governance to enable plausible pathways of transformative change towards sustainable agriculture and food systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) production in Ethiopia is exclusively rainfed. The average national yield remains low comparing to the potentially attainable yield because of the common notion among producers that the crop does not need any nutrient inputs. The newly developed high-yielding cultivars have brought significant yield gains. However, their genetic potentials are still hampered by the traditional crop management practices used and the problematic Vertisol growing conditions. Yields of chickpea grown on Vertisols are limited by poor drainage when sown early and by drought when sown late. This calls for optimization of the balance with minimum tradeoffs in key economic traits. Here, we review research progress on chickpea over the past five decades in Ethiopia, with particular emphasis on crop management practices. The paper gives a comprehensive overview of research findings and information generated on the Vertisol cropping systems, where chickpea is the principal rotational crop under cereal-legume cultivation entailing substantial role in cropping system intensification. It has been noted that the productivity of Vertisol-grown chickpea is largely constrained more by lack of the use of best bet crop management practices than the genetics of a given cultivar. For instance, raised-bed method as compared to the conventional flatbed increased grain and biomass yields by about 74% and 58%, respectively. The current average farm yield of chickpea in Ethiopia is about 55% of the yield potential of the crop, suggesting that farmers can still have rooms to substantially increase yield using improved practices. Based on the cumulative evidences, it can be concluded that the yield potentials of genetically elite cultivars may not be realized without synergistic combination of improved management practices and adequate nutrient use. We, therefore, recommend the integrated use of improved crop management strategies, while the soil physical properties still deserve utmost research attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic agriculture and organic food have expanded in recent decades but have undergone conventionalisation. Some claim that this contradicts some or all of the principles of ‘health’, ‘ecology’, ‘fairness’ and ‘care’ established by the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movement (IFOAM). It is currently unclear how research on organic food/agriculture is structured, whether it embraces these principles, or how key crop diversification, driving sustainability, are addressed. To fill these knowledge gaps, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of 10,030 peer-reviewed articles published from 1945 to 2021 with topic and textual analysis. Our main findings were the following: (1) research is compartmentalised into scales and disciplines, with at field-scale ‘weed’, ‘soil’, ‘pest and disease’ management and ‘livestock farming’ seldom addressed together, or with environmental assessment separated from socioeconomic studies at farm scale. (2) The proportion of publications on ‘consumers’ preferences’ and ‘product quality’ research almost tripled in 20 years, from 10 to 27%, emphasizing the consumer orientation of research on organic agriculture and organic food. (3) Only 4% of articles covered all four IFOAM principles, while associated values such as ‘resilience’, ‘integrity’, ‘equity’, ‘transparency’ and ‘justice’ were even less frequently addressed. (4) Fewer diversification practices have been tested in organic than in conventional agriculture research, with fewer articles on ‘crop mixtures’ or ‘bee-friendly crops’ and a smaller range of legumes considered. (5) Research on genetic improvement and processing of organic legumes is lacking, which could constrain adoption of legumes in organic farming even more than in conventional agriculture. These results indicate a need for increasing interdisciplinary efforts at field level, with systematic measurement of multiple processes (weed-nutrient-pest dynamics). Future studies on organic agriculture should combine several diversification practices and legumes, with relevant indicators addressing the IFOAM values explicitly, and consider the whole value chain by linking producers with consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against the backdrop of global warming, the agricultural sector grapples with the dual challenge of safeguarding food security while fulfilling carbon neutrality. Currently, although nitrogen fertilizer and mulch use to enhance maize yields is well-documented, systematic evaluations are lacking in the carbon neutrality potential and holistic benefits, including greenhouse gas (GHG) implications, associated with these strategies. Here, using the calibrated DeNitrification-DeComposition (DNDC) model, we conducted a long-term simulation (1980−2019) incorporating various scenarios of nitrogen fertilizer (N1: conventional nitrogen fertilizer; N0.7: 70% conventional nitrogen fertilizer) and mulch (CK: no-mulch; PM: plastic film mulch; SM: straw mulch), resulting in a baseline scenario (CKN1) and five mitigation scenarios (CKN0.7, PMN1, PMN0.7, SMN1, SMN0.7). We revealed an average net global warming potential during the maize growing season of 5293 kg CO2 eq ha−1, with the most GHG derived from N2O (53%). Considering GHG costs, the net environmental and economic benefits in maize amounted to 5089 CNY ha−1. Presently, Hainan, Henan, Liaoning, and Jilin provinces exhibit a state of low net global warming potential and high net environmental and economic benefits in maize cultivation. Of the mitigation scenarios, only SMN1 concurrently reduced GHG emissions (− 59%) and amplified net environmental and economic benefits (+ 21%) in China. Our results, which provide the first calculation of the combined benefits of mulch and nitrogen fertilizer including GHG costs, not only underscore the immense potential of mulch for enabling carbon neutrality, but also offer valuable insights for policymakers and industry in selecting suitable mulch techniques for agricultural production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]