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A deep understanding of the loss and migration of various sizes of phosphorus (P) is crucial for the effective management of nutrients in agricultural watersheds. In this study, three P species including large-particle phosphorus (LPP, >1 μm), colloidal phosphorus (CP, 1 nm–1 μm), and dissolved phosphorus (DP, <1 nm), were observed and simulated. Then the size-dependent of nonpoint source P (NPS-P) process was discussed at both field and watershed scales. Finally, a stochastic rainfall algorithm was developed to investigate different P species driven by rainfall. The results indicated the losses of LPP, CP, and DP under different land use patterns differ markedly, whereas paddy fields are hotspots of CP loss. Sloping farmlands typically exhibit greater losses of DP and LPP, while CP account for 13 %–38 % of total P losses. At the watershed scale, the contribution of CP riverine inputs ranged from 13 % to 40 % due to its mobility and special feature. Compared with LPP, CP has an extended half-decay distance and is more capable of being transported to water bodies. Heavy rainfall significantly increases the contribution of CP to NPS-P. At rainfall levels of 300 mm, the contribution of CP riverine inputs from paddy fields can be up to 47.4 %. The findings provide novel insights into future agricultural nutrient management and NPS-P control from the perspective of the size effect. • Size-dependent of phosphorus loss and migration were observed and simulated. • A stochastic rainfall algorithm was developed to investigate the rainfall effects. • Paddy fields are identified as hotspots for colloidal phosphorus loss. • Colloidal phosphorus migrates further due to its mobility and special feature. • Heavy rainfall increases the contribution of colloidal phosphorus to NPS-P. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding soil biodiversity response to land use change is crucial for predicting and preserving soil ecological functions and health under anthropogenic influence. Yet, the overall effect of land use changes and climate conditions on belowground biodiversity remains insufficiently explored at large scales. Here, we studied the effect of conversion from natural soils to agricultural soils on soil nematode diversity and community assembly across the Mollisol zone in northeast China. We found that nematode alpha diversity decreased in agricultural soils, and nematode alpha diversity did not exhibit a regular change with latitudinal variation. For beta diversity, we found that nematode community structures were significantly affected by land use change. Furthermore, climatic factors and geographic distance significantly impacted the beta diversity of soil nematodes, but not the alpha diversity. Mean annual temperature was a primary climatic determinant of soil nematode communities, while the effect of mean annual precipitation on soil nematode beta diversity was only observed in agricultural soils. Stochastic processes dominated soil nematode community assembly, but agricultural soils increased the importance of deterministic processes compared to natural soils. There is no any expected variation in soil nematode alpha diversity along the Mollisol zone. Our findings highlight the crucial role of temperature in driving soil nematode communities. • Climate condition and spatial distance impact nematode beta diversity but not alpha diversity. • Temperature is a primary climatic factor driving nematode communities along Mollisol zone. • Agricultural ecosystems increase deterministic process of nematode community assembly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Dry Chaco region, agriculture expansion has caused significant land use change hotspots. However, the post-impact of land use change on nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions and carbon (C) budgets remains unknown. This study aimed to contrast the impacts of the main land use systems on N 2 O emissions related to its C inputs and C budgets by comparing them with those of a native forest at two sites of the Dry Chaco region of Argentina. At Site 1, the land use system were soybean-fallow-soybean and maize-fallow-maize sequences, whereas at Site 2, it was a soybean-wheat sequence. Measurements of soil N 2 O and carbon dioxide (CO 2) fluxes were carried out monthly using the static chamber method. The C budgets of each system were determined for the annual crop-fallow cycle by the difference between the C inputs (from annual aboveground (ABG), belowground (BG), and rhizodeposition) and C outputs (defined as cumulative CO 2 -C emissions). At Site 1, the native forest showed 168 and 50 % more cumulative N 2 O emissions than maize and soybean, respectively. However, most land use differences were based on C inputs. Thus, when the cumulative N 2 O emissions of each system were related to their C inputs, the N 2 O emissions per ton of C entered of the native forest were lower than those of soybean and similar to those of maize. The C budgets (± standard error) at Site 1 were 6.4 ± 1.3, 1.0 ± 0.3 and −0.7 ± 0.6 t C ha−1 yr−1 for native forest, maize and soybean, respectively. At Site 2, they were 3.1 ± 0.7 and −4.0 ± 0.6 t C ha−1 yr−1 for the native forest and the soybean-wheat sequence, respectively. This paper proposes a comprehensive approach that integrates C inputs and budgets when evaluating N 2 O emissions from different land uses as a guide to define mitigating management practices and considers a native vegetation system to unmask the real impacts of agroecosystems. [Display omitted] • How do changes in land use affect N 2 O emissions and C budgets in the Dry Chaco region. • C-scaled N 2 O emissions can change the point of view of agroecosystem impacts. • Maize and the native forest had similar N 2 O emissions per unit of assimilated C. • The approach of C budgets allows determining sustainable crop rotation. • Better N 2 O emissions and C budgets start improving at a 5-ton C input threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of land-use history on shade tree diversity in cocoa agroforestry plantations needs exploration to facilitate effective biodiversity conservation. Thus, we evaluated the effect of land-use history on the taxonomic and functional diversity of the tree shade community in cocoa agroforestry plantations in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Southeastern Mexico. We selected seven cocoa agroforestry plantations: three with high-intensity management (initially open fields, sown shadow trees, agrochemical use) and four with low-intensity management (under the forest canopy, shadow trees from natural regeneration, no agrochemical use). We measured the diameter at breast height (dbh), height, taxonomic identity, human use, and functional traits (growth rate, successional/ecological status, dispersal syndrome and leaf phenology) of all shade trees with dbh ≥ 10 cm within five 200 m² circular plots per plantation. Additionally, we gathered the plantation's land-use history from interviews with local farmers. We calculated taxonomic and functional diversity indices for each management scheme and assessed the impact of land-use history on structure, taxonomic, and functional diversity. We observed lower taxonomic and functional diversity and higher species dominance in high-intensity agroforestry plantations as compared to low-intensity ones. High-intensity plantations consisted of dense tree communities with low taxonomic and functional diversity, dominated by fast-growing, economically valuable species such as cedar (Cedrela odorata). Tree richness and abundance were strongly influenced by land-use history, including canopy openness, pest control, and fertilizer type. Although cocoa agroforestry plantations in open sites maintain a low diversity of shade trees, they contribute to biodiversity recovery. Landowners' decisions to improve land productivity significantly impact the shade tree diversity of cocoa agroforestry plantations. To enhance the conservation value of these plantations and their ecosystem services, including soil enrichment, pollination, and pest control, promoting a high-diversity shade tree layer is crucial, ultimately benefiting agroforestry production. • Land use management influences the taxonomic/functional diversity of shade trees. • Intensive agroforestry management lowers taxonomic/functional diversity in shade trees. • High taxonomic/functional diversity increases the conservation value of agroforestry. • Increasing taxonomic/functional diversity may benefit agroforestry production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Grazed agricultural landscapes provide important habitats for many frog species. • Frogs responded to interactions between management and environmental variables. • Frog abundance increased with proximity to water, more in remnants than in paddocks. • Taller ground cover in remnants resulted in greater abundance of some frogs. Improved management of human-modified landscapes must be part of global efforts to combat biodiversity loss. We aimed to identify which land management types and environmental factors influenced the use of grazing landscapes by frogs. We surveyed frog assemblages in remnant vegetation, four different paddock types (pasture, linear planting, coarse woody debris addition and fence), and two grazing regimes (continuous and rotational). Frogs were surveyed using pitfall and funnel traps in twelve grazing farms in south-eastern Australia. We found that grazed agricultural landscapes provide important habitats for a variety of species of frogs and that frog assemblages were influenced by both farm management type and environmental variables, and their interactions. Total frog abundance increased with proximity to water more strongly in remnants compared to paddocks. This difference in response may be due to different traits and behaviours of frogs in remnants compared to frogs in open paddocks. Rare frog species richness and abundance of a common species (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) increased with taller ground cover in remnants but no such relationship occurred in paddocks. Different types of predation risk in remnants compared to paddocks may result in greater ground cover shelter requirements in remnants, as vegetation structure can strongly influence predation. Total frog species richness increased more rapidly with higher rainfall in continuously grazed versus rotationally grazed farms. Higher rainfall was associated with taller ground cover. Continuously grazed farms had shorter average ground cover than rotationally grazed farms and the increased ground cover height associated with more rain may bring ground cover to a height better able to provide shelter and reduce desiccation risk for frogs. Our study highlights the importance of both land management practices and environmental conditions and their interaction in shaping frog assemblages. Improved frog biodiversity conservation may be achieved in grazing landscapes by retaining patches of remnant vegetation, maintaining water bodies such as farm dams, and maintaining tall ground cover within vegetation remnants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Injecting pig slurry is an effective way to reduce the ammonia emissions. • Injection of the slurry was heterogeneous, which influenced ammonia reduction using this technique. • Reduction in ammonia emissions after injection depends on slurry characteristics (DM, NH 4 +). Field experiments were conducted in Brittany (western France) in 2012 to measure and compare ammonia emissions after surface application and injection of fattening and farrowing-gestating pig slurry. Experiments were conducted on wheat stubble. Ammonia emissions were measured using wind tunnels. The results showed a reduction in ammonia emissions after injection compared to broadcast spreading whatever the slurry. However, the reduction in ammonia volatilization using the injection technique was less with the farrowing/gestating slurry (65% reduction) than with the fattening slurry (97% reduction). The lesser reduction was associated with lower emissions of total ammonia nitrogen in farrowing slurry (16% of the N-NH 4 + applied) compared to the fattening slurry (74% of the N-NH 4 + applied). The lower ammonia emissions were attributed to lower dry matter content and less ammonium in the farrowing/gestating pig slurry compared to the fattening pig slurry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• SWC was scale-dependent on meteorological factors. • The higher relationships between controls and SWC was mainly found at large scales. • Soil depth had greater influence on wavelet coherency than land use. • Wavelet coherency analysis was a useful technique in solving scale problem. Temporal soil water content (SWC) patterns are affected by meteorological factors that operate at different intensities at different scales. Pearson's correlation analysis can only identify linear correlations at the measurement scale, therefore we examined the relationships between SWC and meteorological factors at different scales and occasions in a karst landscape using wavelet coherency analysis. SWC was measured at five soil depths using time domain reflectometry in two land uses over 242 d in a karst depression, southwest China. The results showed that the temporal SWC dynamics were influenced mainly by precipitation and land use. The temporal SWC patterns in farmland differed from those in grassland. The relationships between SWC and meteorological factors varied with scale, and a significant correlation was generally observed at large scales. Information on variation of scale for SWC improved the performance of soil moisture prediction. Soil depth had a greater impact on wavelet coherency at large scales than land use. Positive and negative correlations were detected between SWC and meteorological factors using wavelet coherency analysis. This study indicated that wavelet coherency analysis has potential to reveal the scale-specific dependence of SWC on controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Land-use and habitats were broadly similar between TG and control farms. • New hedges, uncropped margins and young trees were more prevalent on TG farms. • Encounter rates of target bat species were high, and occurrence similar, on both TG and control farms. • Where present, the intensity of activity of N. noctula / Nyctalus group was higher on control farms. • There were no relationships between bat activity and time under TG management. Abstract Agricultural intensification was a major driver of declines in western European wildlife populations during the twentieth century, including those of bats. Agri-environment schemes are advocated as the key government-funded mechanism to restore biodiversity, but evidence for their effects has been mixed. We examined the response of six bat species to Tir Gofal (TG), a Welsh AES that operated from 1999 to 2011. A large-scale multi-site study compared bat activity and key habitat variables on TG farms paired with control farms not in the scheme. Observations were made over three years (2009 to 2011) using three types of bat detector survey. Pipistrellus pipistrellus , P. pygmaeus , Myotis daubentonii , Rhinolophus hipposideros and R. ferrumequinum showed similar overall and foraging activity on TG and control farms (occurrence, intensity of activity where present). Occurrence of Nyctalus noctula and Nyctalus group was also similar on both farm types, but where they were present, the intensity of their activity was higher on control farms. The lack of influence of TG status on bat activity may reflect the close similarity in occurrence and condition of many key habitats on the two farm types and should be seen in the context of a mainly traditional extensively farmed landscape. Habitat prescriptions may have been insufficiently mature, implemented at too low density or lacking roosting provision to stimulate a species response, or may have had greater impact in a more intensively farmed landscape where less high quality bat habitat was available. A more targeted approach to creating and enhancing field and landscape scale roosting, foraging and commuting resources may be needed to effect positive responses in bat populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Bird density was most influenced by landscape variables measured within 200-m of restored patches. • Restored habitat within 200-m was generally not a positive strong predictor of bird density. • Surrounding crop cover moderated the effects of restored habitat for only one of our focal species. • Targeted implementation should consider land uses within 200 m of restored fields. Abstract Existing private-land conservation programs play an important role in restoring wildlife habitat in agriculturally fragmented landscapes. These conservation programs are generally implemented for a variety of environmental purposes in addition to providing wildlife habitat and as a result private-land programs are often implemented without identifying target species. Conservation benefits of private-land conservation programs could be improved if the needs of declining species were used to guide future enrollments and management of habitat created through these programs. To improve implementation and management of these programs, we examined what within-field, patch, and landscape features affected habitat selection by 6 conservation priority bird species. Specifically, we were interested in understanding how species responded to patch size, surrounding private-land conservation habitat, and the degree to which the amount of surrounding cropland moderated the response to the amount of conservation habitat. To do this, we conducted bird surveys at 172 private-land fields during 2012–2015. While most species were positively associated with patch size, only the Dickcissel (Spiza americana) was strongly positively associated with this variable. Dickcissel (+) and the Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla) (-) had strong relationships with the amount of surrounding private-land conservation habitat, although we found no evidence that benefits were greater in landscapes with higher amounts of row-crop agriculture. Contrary to previous studies, our results suggest that for most of our focal species, targeting fields in areas with existing private-land conservation habitat and creating larger patches does not improve the benefit of these programs, although maintaining and placing them in grass-dominated landscapes will. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Self-organizing map approach was used to classify ponds into five clusters, representing different water quality. • Different land use patterns were identified across watersheds in five clusters. • Influence of land use patterns on water quality was dependent on farmland and village size. • Pond water quality in rice season was better than in the wheat season. • Irrigation and fertilization weaken the relationship between land use and water quality. Abstract Revealing the relationship beween land use patterns and pond water quality is helpful to make water resource management decisions and improve agricultural pollution at the watershed scale. However, there is uncertainty about how irrigation and fertilization affect land use-water relationships. This study used a self-organizing map method to classify 51 created ponds and examined how land use pattern indices relateto pond water quality by identifying the variables in different clusters. The influence of irrigation and fertilization on water-land use associations were further explored. The self-organizing map classified ponds into five clusters, from least to most nutrient rich, with different variables of land use in clusters. Water quality improved as the percentage of pond surface area in the watershed increased, and decreased as farmland proportion increased. Land use patterns, such as patch density and ditch density, actually affected concentrations of chlorophyll a in pond water. Regardless of wheat or rice season, the weakening effects of fertilization and irrigation on land use-water relationships occurred among most ponds clusters. Irrigation and fertilization in the wheat season had more influence on water and land use relationships than in the rice season. Based on these results, water resource protection regulations should consider similar pond conditions within land use of watersheds to optimize mitigation strategies for different land-use characteristics and seasonal variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Predation rates increased with increasing vegetation height in grasslands. • Grazing intensity, mowing frequency, and applied fertilizer affected predation. • Higher predation at higher abundance of carabids and lower abundance of ants. Abstract Land use is a major driver of biodiversity loss in many taxa including the mega-diverse arthropods, but consequences for arthropod-mediated processes are still little understood. Using a rapid ecosystem function assessment (REFA), we approximated predation by quantifying predation attempts on artificial sentinel prey. Dummies were placed on the soil surface of 83 managed temperate grasslands across a broad range of land-use intensities (grazing intensity, mowing frequency, and the amount of applied fertiliser) in two regions of Germany. Additionally, we measured vegetation height and assessed the abundance of ground-dwelling arthropods using pitfall traps. We documented predation marks left by arthropods, rodents, and birds. The proportion of dummies with predation marks (i.e. predation rates) differed between regions. Vegetation height was the strongest predictor for predation in our study but correlated only weakly with land use. Predation rates increased with increasing vegetation height, for rodents and for all predator groups combined. All three land-use components affected predation, which was most prominent for arthropod predation. Arthropod predation increased with higher grazing intensity and decreased with higher mowing frequency and higher fertilisation intensity. Also, the abundances of ground-dwelling arthropods affected predation. While predation rates generally increased with a higher abundance of carabids and decreased with higher abundance of ants, the effects of spider abundance interacted with region. Our results demonstrate that different components of land use can have counteracting effects on predation rates acting together with changes in the abundance of different predator groups and vegetation height. This suggests that land-use practices that sustain high vegetation and ground-dwelling predator abundances increase predation rates in grasslands and consequently the potential to provide ecosystem services in the form of pest control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Similarities in biophysical and biogeochemical seasonality along elevation gradient. • Grassland productivity correlates with temperature, management, C/N and diversity. • Continuous vegetation height observations help identify canopy structure changes. Abstract An improved regional assessment of the productivity of grasslands depends on comprehensive knowledge of the interactions between climatic drivers, vegetation properties and human activity. Managed grasslands in Europe display highly dynamic responses, which contribute to the challenge in making representative model simulations. Therefore, we investigated the relationships between vegetation state changes and productivity of meadow grasslands by comparing three study sites in Southern Germany (DE-Fen, DE-RbW, DE-Gwg), which are characterised by different management intensities and elevations. Weekly observations of vegetation height, leaf area, above-ground biomass and plant functional types were compared to estimates of the gross ecosystem productivity (GEP) determined from atmospheric surface exchange of carbon dioxide. We found that the cumulative GEP of these grasslands correlated positively with management intensity and negatively with elevation at the seasonal scale. The differences in above-ground vegetation properties among the three sites were most pronounced during spring and contributed to significant differences in annual carbon (200%) and nitrogen (4%) biomass yields. Nevertheless, when periods between harvests were considered individually, the relationship between GEP and above-ground biomass, leaf area and vegetation height appeared to follow unified patterns for all sites. In addition, our study highlights a substantial potential for systematic error based on the techniques used to quantify vegetation properties and a mitigating approach was evaluated that includes continuous automated observations of vegetation height. These outcomes can serve as a reference for modelling studies on the seasonal allocation of carbon and vegetation properties in managed humid temperate grassland systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Soil AMF communities differed according to local conditions and the legacy of past land uses. • Soybean influenced the structure of root-colonising AMF communities. • Soils exhibited a high abundance of Gigasporaceae , but roots were predominantly colonized by Glomeraceae. Abstract Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are a key component of soil microbiota in natural and anthropogenic ecosystems. Even though soil type and climate conditioned land uses in the past, soybean cultivation has overrode such limitations and replaced the earlier diverse agro- and natural ecosystems in many countries of South America. We investigated whether actual diversity patterns of local AMF communities were determined by previous land uses and their intrinsic environmental conditions. We sequenced AMF DNA from root and soil samples collected from current soybean fields with three historical land use situations (HLU): agricultural fields, livestock farming and forest sites. We detected overall high AMF richness: 87 virtual taxa (VT) in soil and 69 VT in soybean roots. Mean number of VT per sample ranged from 8.1 to 19.2; it was not affected by HLU nor type of sample, but correlated with soil texture, pH, and plant density. Conversely, AMF community composition did significantly diverge among HLU and type of sample. A distinctive community composition was observed in roots of historical agricultural fields which differed from any other soil and root sample evaluated in this study. We attribute this finding to variations in the abundance pattern of predominant AMF taxa (Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae). Our results indicate that soybean cultivation supports relatively high AMF diversity, with apparent legacies from earlier management and natural habitats in the composition of resident AMF communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Effects of cropland area changes on cereal production are assessed across countries. • China has lost many primary lands but has increased cereal production markedly. • Brazil has expanded cropland area but has only limited cereal production increases. • Countries like China reduce hunger more significantly due to productivity improvement. • Sustainable production needs to balance area allocation and productivity improvement. Abstract Although cereal production is a linear function of cropland area in principle, the relationship between area change and production change is nonlinear at a larger geographical scale due to the spatially heterogeneous use of land. Based on globally gridded land cover maps between 2000 and 2010, this study presents a country-level comparison to understand how cropland area change contributes to cereal production variation across the world's major cereal producers. First, a map of potential cereal productivity is applied to represent the spatially varied biophysical capacity, and the cropland area change in primary and marginal locations are calculated separately for individual countries by adopting the country's average cereal productivity as a reference. Then the area-change-induced potential cereal production change is estimated and correlated with the actual production change at the country level. The results show that most countries increased cropland area in primary locations. A few countries decreased cropland area, and the area losses are mainly occurred in primary locations as well. Moreover, China and USA achieved a marked increase in actual production with an expected decrease in potential production. In contrast, Brazil, Argentina and Nigeria have a higher increase in potential production against a relatively lower increase in actual production. Combining these, a cluster analysis indicates that some countries better exploited cropland productivity (as represented by China), and some countries better allocated cropland area (as represented by Brazil). Although the former group has reduced hunger more significantly, sustainable cereal production requires balanced development in terms of both productivity-improvement and area-optimization, which simultaneously ensure production and minimize environmental effects. Consequently, the current comparative analysis provides a preliminary guideline for developing national-level strategies by comparing the performance of one country to that of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Runoff has changed significantly in most regions in China over the past decades. Climate variability and land-use changes are considered to be the two main factors contributing to runoff variation. Investigating the mechanism of runoff variation is of great significance for the sustainable utilization of water resources. In this study, Mann-Kendall test, double cumulative curve method, and runoff sensitivity analysis method are adopted to separate and quantify the relative impacts of climate variability and land-use changes on runoff. Furthermore, the sensitivities of runoff were estimated with regard to these two factors in north China during the study period from 1957 to 2000. The results revealed a significant decreasing trend in annual runoff and indicated that land-use changes had a greater effect on runoff than climate variability since 1979. The runoff decline due to land-use changes was 68.33%, whereas the runoff decline due to climate variability was only 30.85%. Further analysis of the sensitivities of runoff to climate variability and land-use changes suggested that, with a 10% increase in precipitation, the runoff will increase by 35.1%; while a 10% increase in potential evapotranspiration or the aridity index will induce 25.1% or 27.5% decrease in runoff, respectively. The sensitivity coefficients of runoff to precipitation, potential evapotranspiration and aridity index (ε P , ε E P and ε ϕ ), and runoff ratio (Q/P) and the aridity index exhibited a significant nonlinear negative correlation (Y = ax−b , R2 > 0.85), and a positive linear correlation (Y = ax + b , R2 < 0.50), respectively. All these results implied that runoff is more sensitive to the regions with water scarcity and drying climate. The average sensitivity coefficients of runoff to forest, grassland, and farmland were 1.46, 1.21 and 1.18, respectively. This means that a 10% increase in forest, grassland, and farmland coverage would induce 1.46, 1.21, and 1.18 mm decrease of runoff, respectively. This demonstrates that forests have the most effective impact on runoff reduction, followed by grassland or farmland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Grazing has no effects on the communities of ectomycorrhizal fungi. • Historical land-use intensity has a negative effect on species richness. • Proportion of broadleaved trees, soil pH and moisture drives communities. • Stand conditions should be evaluated when planning wood-pasture conservation. Abstract Traditional rural biotopes such as wood-pastures are species-rich environments that have been created by low-intensity agriculture. Their amount has decreased dramatically during the 20th century in whole Europe due to the intensification of agriculture. Wood-pastures host some fungal species that prefer warm areas and are adapted to semi-open conditions, but still very little is known about fungi in these habitats. We studied how management, historical land-use intensity, present grazing intensity, time since abandonment, and stand conditions affect the species richness and community composition of ectomycorrhizal fungi. We surveyed fruit bodies on three 10 m × 10 m study plots in 36 sites and repeated the surveys three times. Half of the sites were currently unmanaged but had a grazing history. We measured soil pH, soil moisture and the basal area of different tree species, and interviewed landowners about grazing history. We found that the proportion of broadleaved trees, soil pH, and soil moisture are the major drivers of the communities of ectomycorrhizal fungi in boreal wood-pastures. Management or grazing intensity did not have significant effects on fungal species richness, whereas historical land-use intensity seemed to have a negative effect on species richness. To conclude, present stand conditions are the most important factors to evaluate when planning the conservation of ectomycorrhizal fungi living in semi-open forest habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Wild bee community success was positively correlated with honey bee success. • Grasslands, bee-forage crops, woods, and wetlands increased wild bee success. • Crops not providing bee forage decreased wild bee success and honey bee survival. • Intensive agriculture can include habitat to support wild bees and honey bees. Abstract Although both managed and unmanaged bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, efforts to address questions about landscapes that best support pollinators often focus on either wild pollinators or honey bees. This study examined if there was concordance between the success of wild bee communities and managed honey bee colonies at sites varying in floral availability and disturbance level in a predominantly agricultural landscape. We also determined which agricultural land uses best supported wild bee communities. The study area in the state of North Dakota in Northern Great Plains in North America is home to understudied native bee communities as well as over ¼ of U.S. commercial honey bee colonies during the summer months. There is an assumption that honey bees can do well in agricultural areas but that wild bees need natural areas to thrive. We compared wild bee community success with health and survival of managed honey bees (data obtained from a related study) at six apiary locations over three years. We examined wild bee communities and surrounding land uses at 18 locations, three of which were spatially associated with each of six apiary locations. Wild bee abundance and species diversity were positively correlated with honey production, a measure of honey bee success, indicating that locations supporting successful honey bee colonies also supported successful wild bee communities. Grasslands, bee-forage crops, wooded areas, and wetlands were associated with increased abundance, species diversity, or functional diversity of wild bee communities. Crops not providing forage for bees, predominantly soybean, corn, and wheat, were associated with decreased functional diversity, decreased above-ground nesting bees and bees with shorter active season durations, and decreased honey bee survival. Pollinator conservation efforts retaining and enhancing grasslands, wooded areas, wetlands, and crops providing bee forage will likely support the growth, reproduction, and survival of diverse wild bee communities and the success of managed honey bees in areas dominated by intensive agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Stream-hillslope connectivity controlled by crop-fallow cycle and soil crust. Highlights • Annual runoff coefficient decrease with fallow regrowth. • Rain infiltration is limited by soil surface crusting under annual crops. • Groundwater outflow during storms increase with soil crusting rate reduction. • Soil features and land use mosaic determine preferential pathways of water. • Stream-hillslope connectivity dynamic controlled by crop-fallow cycle and soil crust. Abstract Groundwater contribution to streamflow sustains biodiversity and enhances ecosystem services, especially under monsoon-driven climate where stream baseflow is often the only available water resource during the dry season. We assessed how land use change influences streamflow and its groundwater contribution in a small headwater catchment subject to shifting cultivation in Montane Southeast Asia. Continuous time series of rainfall, reference evapotranspiration, groundwater level, stream discharge and electrical conductivity (EC) of surface and groundwater were monitored from 2002 to 2007. With the rainfall-runoff model GR4J, we investigated temporal changes in the hydrological behaviour of the study catchment to verify consistencies with observed land use change. An EC-based hydrograph separation method allowed estimating the groundwater contribution to 104 stormflow events. Mean soil surface crusting rates corresponding to each of the nine land uses identified in the catchment were determined using 236 standard 1-m2 micro-plots. Mean plant cover for each land use was assessed in 10 × 10-m2 plots. Bedrock topography and soil layers' structure were assessed by electrical resistivity tomography to determine pathways of subsurface storm flows. Our results indicate that an increase in the catchment's areal percentage of fallow from 33% to 71% led to a decrease in the annual runoff coefficient from 43% to 26%. The concurrent reduction of soil crusting rate over the catchment, from 48% to 30%, increased rainwater infiltration. Consecutively, groundwater contribution to storm streamflow increased from 83% to 94%, highlighting the protective role of a dense vegetation cover against flash floods. The overall reduction of the annual basin water yield for inter-storm streamflow from 450 to 185 mm suggests that the potential gain in groundwater recharge was offset by the increased root water uptake for evapotranspiration, as confirmed by the drop in the groundwater level. This analysis illustrates how two different land uses with opposite impacts on soil permeability (i/ extensive soil surface crusting under annual crops resulting in limited runoff infiltration or ii/ fallow regrowth promoting both infiltration and evapotranspiration) both inhibit groundwater recharge. The maintenance of strips of fallow buffers between annual crop plots can slow down runoff and locally promote infiltration and groundwater recharge while limiting evapotranspiration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Biodiversity responses to land use intensity were investigated at the landscape scale (1 km2 plots). • Bird species richness strongly declined when natural areas covered less than 20% of agricultural areas. Butterfly species richness showed a hump-shaped curve. • Intensively managed permanent grasslands had no positive effect on birds and butterflies. • Biodiversity promotion areas, part of the Swiss Agri-environment scheme, promoted bird and butterfly populations. Abstract Although today there is ample evidence that biodiversity is affected by agricultural land use intensification, little is known about how species respond to different land use intensity gradients at landscape scale. To properly describe the relationship between biodiversity and land use intensity, intensity indicators need to account for land cover, management intensity, and be assessed at landscape scale. The study was conducted in 91 landscapes of 1 km2 in Switzerland. Three different land use intensity indicators were calculated: indicator 1 was defined as the ratio between agricultural and natural area; indicator 2 as the ratio between arable land and permanent grassland; and indicator 3 as the ratio between agricultural area and biodiversity promotion areas (BPA, i.e. wildlife-friendly managed areas under Swiss agri-environment schemes). Species richness and abundance of birds and butterflies were used as biodiversity indicators and trait-based community indices were used to describe bird community changes. Overall, we found that birds were affected by landscape composition and agricultural management, while butterflies were mainly affected by agricultural management. Specifically, from natural (e.g. forest dominated) to agriculture-dominated landscape, bird species richness showed a sharp decrease when 80% or more of the landscape was farmed. Butterfly species richness followed a hump-shaped curve. None of the species groups was significantly correlated with the proportion of arable land versus permanent grassland. Yet species richness of birds and butterflies significantly changed with the proportion of BPA: the lower the proportion of BPA, the lower the observed richness. Finally, when the proportion of agricultural land increased, populations of migratory birds and hedge/tree breeders decreased. We conclude that to further promote farmland biodiversity, natural areas, such as forests, hedges and waterbodies, should cover at least 20% of the agricultural landscapes and the proportion of BPA should be increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Conversion of forest to agricultural land use management was a strong driver in shaping the functional bacterial community. • Introduction of pasture into crop-livestock integration management or crop rotation into pasture maintained nosZ and amoA abundances. • Multiple years of grazing pasture in crop-livestock integration maintained nirK abundance, while multiple years of crop rotation in crop-livestock integration management systems promoted soil OM and a richer nirK community composition. • The diversity of the nirK gene is related to the soil conditions and differ among management systems. Abstract Five different agricultural management systems and a forest fragment at two farms were investigated for effects on soil bacterial indicators. This study was conducted in southern Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, in January 2014, at two farms that incorporated integrated crop-livestock systems in Hapludox soil. Impacts of management were assessed through evaluation of functional bacterial communities using quantitative PCR (qPCR) of nitrogen cycling genes (amoA , nirK , and nosZ), PCR-DGGE of the nirK community composition, and by investigating relationships of the nirK community with soil properties. The nirK gene community showed that reference forest soil maintained relatively large nirK , nosZ , but small amoA gene abundances and large range weighted nirK richness (Rr). The introduction of pasture into crop-livestock integration management (inclusion of the second and third year of grazing within a crop-livestock integration system, CL-2 and CL-3, respectively) or the field in its first year of crop rotation after grazing pasture (CL-b) increased nosZ and amoA abundance. Three years of grazing pasture in crop-livestock integration (CL-a) increased nirK abundance, while multiple years of crop rotation in crop-livestock integration management systems increased soil OM and promoted a richer nirK community composition. The nirK community Rr that was not significantly different from the forest was observed in the second or third year of crop rotation after grazing (CL-c or CL-d, respectively) and (CL-3). In contrast, fields in pasture (CL-a, continuous pasture (CP)) and the first year of crop rotation after pasture (CL-b) had reduced Rr and functional organization curves, indicating communities less resilient to future stress. Management systems under integrated crop-livestock farming in tropical soil maintained a relatively diverse N cycling bacterial community, possibly promoting soil quality and N cycling processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Meta-analysis had 858 data points from 78 published studies across 30 countries. • Focused on SOC (soil organic carbon) stock under agroforestry systems (AFS). • The Agroforest aged between 10–20 years had higher SOC stock. • Higher SOC stocks under AFS across all regions except for the temperate region. Abstract The contribution of agroforestry systems (AFS) to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in soil layers due to the presence of deep tree roots are of interest in the context of promoting carbon sinks and greenhouse gas mitigation. To quantify the relative soil C contribution from trees in agroforestry systems (AFS), this study assessed the reported differences in SOC stocks under agroforestry systems in comparison with other land-use systems (Agriculture, Forestry, Pasture, or Uncultivated Land) in various soil-depth classes in four agroecological regions (arid and semiarid, ASA; lowland humid tropics, LHT; Mediterranean, MED; and temperate, TEM) around the world. Using mixed-effect models and a meta-analytical approach, we synthesized data from 78 peer-reviewed studies that generated 858 data points (sites) on SOC stock under various AFS practiced globally. Comparing Agroforest vs. Agriculture or Agroforest vs. Pasture, SOC stocks under AFS were higher by +27% in the ASA region, +26% in LHT, and +5.8% in TEM, but –5.3% in the TEM in the 0–100 cm soil depth. The Agroforest aged between 10–20 years had higher SOC stock than newly established, as well as <10-year-old systems across all soil-depth classes and agroecological regions. Overall, Agroforest vs. Agriculture land management practices resulted in positive SOC stock changes within AFS up to 100 cm soil depth, whereas SOC stock under AFS was lower than under Forest. The results suggest that a general pattern of Forest – Agroforest – Agriculture – Pasture continuum could be expected in SOC stock decline during land-use changes. Improvement of SOC stocks under AFS varied across agroecological regions, the highest being under arid and semiarid region, closely followed by the low humid tropics. The important outcome of this meta-analysis is worthy of emphasizing of the role of AFS in climate change adaptation and greenhouse gas mitigation strategies by promoting carbon sinks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape-scale agricultural intensification can concentrate pest resources (high host density) and impede natural enemy populations through a reduction in non-crop resources or disturbance events. Current approaches examine the impacts of crop dominance on pest pressure through a simple lens, either spatially (i.e. landscape complexity), or temporally (i.e. diversity of crop rotation schedules). However, these partial approaches are inadequate because they do not take into account the impact of multiple years of non-rotation, or the impacts of the surrounding landscape, respectively. In this study, we use a unique method that allows land use in both space and time to be quantified simultaneously with a single metric, “spatiotemporal dominance”. We examined the impact of spatiotemporal dominance of sweet corn on populations of a key insect pest, Ostrinia nubilalis , and its potential predators. Additionally, we evaluated site-specific variables such as crop rotation, percent agriculture in the landscape, cover crop use, and frequency of insecticide applications, to determine their relative importance in predicting pest pressure, alongside our metric of spatiotemporal crop dominance in the landscape. Ostrinia nubilalis adult abundance was positively associated with spatiotemporal dominance of sweet corn in the landscape (space and time) and high proportional agricultural land use (space), but was unrelated to the previous year’s crop (time). Predatory soldier beetle abundance was negatively associated with sweet corn spatiotemporal dominance (space and time), but not associated with the previous year’s crop (time) nor percent agricultural land use (space). Our contrasting results between the new spatiotemporal dominance metric and either crop rotation history or percent agricultural land use or both emphasized that the new method predicts impacts of agricultural intensification on arthropods that were not captured by traditional techniques. In general, pest populations were more abundant in areas with high host dominance, whereas certain predators were less abundant when high disturbance management practices were used (e.g. no cover crop, high insecticide use). Therefore, quantifying spatiotemporal crop dominance refines and strengthens our ability to implicate intense agricultural land use in creating high pest pressure situations through simultaneous bottom-up and top-down effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural land use in the Midwestern U.S. is the major source of nitrogen (N) causing recurring hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Despite efforts to reduce losses, N export from tile-drained, agricultural watersheds throughout the Corn Belt persists. The use of effective agricultural conservation practices can reduce N loss from fields, yet little is known about how field-scale implementation will translate into watershed-scale reductions in N export. In this study, we used a sampling approach with high spatial and temporal resolution to quantify changes in tile drain load and watershed export of nitrate (NO 3 − -N) after planting cover crops on >60% of croppable acres in a small, agricultural watershed. We found that median NO 3 − -N losses from tiles draining fields with cover crops were 69–90% lower than tiles draining fields without cover crops during winter/spring. Measured instantaneous flow was the major driver of NO 3 − -N losses from tile drains, though results suggest that this relationship differed between tiles with and without cover crops in spring. The signature of cover crops at the field-scale was evident in watershed NO 3 − -N export, particularly during times of elevated flows; median daily NO 3 − -N exported in elevated flows was 18–22% lower during years with watershed-scale planting of cover crops compared to years without. Nevertheless, changes in watershed NO 3 − -N export were smaller than the observed reductions in tile drain loads. Results indicate that tile drain reductions directly reflected the influence of cover crops at the field-scale while watershed export integrated both past and present management, ultimately complicating attempts to distinguish the effect of conservation efforts at larger spatial scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farm size increase (FSI) accelerates soil erosion and sediment loss into the river. However, it is not clear how large-scale management, including FSI, changes the proportion of sediment from different land use types (LUTs) into rivers in intensive agricultural catchments. Thus, the aim of this study is to quantify and elucidate the contribution of different LUTs to river sediment before and after FSI using compound-specific stable isotopes (CSSI). The study was conducted in three parallel sub-watersheds in the sugarcane plantation region of subtropical southern China, each of which included four different LUTs (eucalyptus plantation, road, sugarcane plantation and channel). Following FSI, the contribution of sediment entering the river from the four LUTs was significantly different from that before FSI. The contribution per unit area of the road, sugarcane, and river channel to river sediment was significantly higher (P < 0.05) after FSI than before FSI. Overall, 1% increase in sugarcane farm size and stream channels caused > 2% and 0.3% increase contribution to river sediment, respectively. Field and road densities significantly correlated with river sediment sources. The FSI had a significant impact on the contribution of sediment entering the river from different LUTs within the watershed. Our results demonstrate that the increase river sediment depends on the increased hydrological connectivity of the watershed due to decreased field density and increased road density. Therefore, it is important to pay attention not only to the agricultural/economic benefits of FSI, but also the negative impacts on increasing erosion and ecological/environmental degradation. • The influence of farm size on river sediment sources was assessed. • Increasing farm size accelerates contribution of slope/channel to river sediment. • Contribution of slope/channel to river sediment depends on field and road density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation, the transformation of interconnected large habitats into several small patches, is generally considered to have a negative influence on biodiversity. Management policies should therefore favour strategies that minimize fragmentation. We studied amphibian diversity and compositional patterns in a complex montane agroforestry matrix of north-eastern Colombia to assess whether small-scale agroforestry is a viable way of reconciling crop production, farming, and biodiversity conservation. A total of five different land-use systems, including natural cloud forest, were compared. We used standardized visual and acoustic transect sampling routines in combination with field-based habitat assessments to establish amphibian assemblage data sets and corresponding habitat templets. Data sets were analysed using classical species richness and diversity statistics in combination with multivariate procedures to address compositional aspects. PER(mutational)MANOVA models were applied to identify environmental and land-use type-specific drivers of shifts in assemblage composition. Results show that agricultural management has a strong influence on amphibian species richness and diversity. With the exception of high intensity cattle pasture, diversity was generally highest in agriculturally used sites particularly in shaded plantations. Species composition differed markedly between different land-use types, indicating that there was not a single best land-use type that supported all species. This highlights the need for a landscape approach to biodiversity conservation in fragmented forests and consequently requires refocusing on conservation in management units as well as in the matrix. In human modified montane forest landscapes small-scale agriculture that generates landscape heterogeneity should therefore be promoted to effectively safeguard biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil nitrogen (N) dynamics have considerable effects on the terrestrial carbon cycle, and land use changes could affect soil N through impacts on soil aggregate stability. This study selected nine sites including apple orchards of different ages and restored sites to explore the effects of soil aggregate stability on soil total N (STN), ammonium N (AN), and nitrate N (NN) following different stages of apple orchard on the Loess Plateau of China. The results showed that when compared with apple orchard sites, the restored sites had higher contents of STN and lower contents of AN and NN, but when compared with restored sites, inorganic-N storage played a more important role in the apple orchards. Following different stages of apple orchards, the STN, AN and NN contents and mean weight diameter (MWD) of soil aggregates were all improved. MWD had a negative effect on inorganic-N content at 10–30 cm soil depths but had a positive relationship with soil N at 0–10 cm soil depth. In addition, planting apple orchards destroyed soil aggregate stability in this erodible environment, but it could be restored soon after abandonment. Therefore, considering soil N and soil aggregate stability, it is feasible to plant apple trees in this area and we propose that the effects of trade-offs between soil aggregate stability and soil erosion on soil N in terraced agroecosystems should be a focus of future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insect pests are a major cause of crop yield losses around the world and pest management plays a critical role in providing food security and farming income. This study links Nigerian farmers’ perceptions of pest severity to the landscape, agronomic, biophysical, and socio-economic context in which agricultural production takes place. A farm household survey was conducted during 2012–2013, collecting data on household characteristics, cropping systems, pest severity and pest management from 805 households in 12 states of Nigeria. Village characteristics and land use information were collected from an accompanying semi-structured village survey. Reported pest severity was negatively associated with the proportions of forest and unused land at the landscape scale. This finding suggests the existence of pest suppressive effects of a diverse landscape under African smallholder agriculture settings, confirming findings of more industrial and larger scale agroecosystems in the temperate zone. Application of fertilizers (chemical and manure) was negatively related to reported pest severity. Moreover, reported pest severity was lower in mixed-cropping systems than in mono-cropping systems, reinforcing the idea of a pest suppression benefit of diverse cropping systems. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the presence of non-crop areas in the landscape and the diversification of agroecosystems may be a viable strategy for smallholder farmers to manage pests with limited reliance of chemical insecticides in Nigeria, but that actual pest management decisions are influenced by a wide range of context-specific factors. The paper adds new evidence on the relationship between different production situation characteristics and pest severity for Nigeria, based on which policy implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the effects of land use changes driven by sugarcane expansion on the stream flow for two selected basins: Monte Mor (MM), where a stagnation in sugarcane area is expected, and Fazenda Monte Alegre (FMA), which is under intense expansion towards the Cerrado biome. The evaluation was made using a previously calibrated and validated SWAT model. Scenarios of land use changes were made based on a more realistic sugarcane expansion related to future ethanol demand and also regarding more intense expansion and other land use change trends, always considering the maintenance of natural vegetation. Modelling results show that the expected sugarcane expansion for 2030 would not bring substantial impacts on stream flow, nor on the reference flow (Q90) in flow duration curves for MM basin. For FMA basin, the expansion is expected to increase stream flow and reference flow during the dry season and decrease during the rainy season. The results suggest that the replacement of annual crops and pasture lands by sugarcane regulates the stream flow regime by decreasing stream flow peaks and, consequently, the flood risk, while also increasing water availability during the dry season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land use change strongly affects soil organic carbon (SOC), which is a critical driving force for soil quality and soil services. However, the influence of detailed land use dynamics on SOC remains an active research field. We investigated the impact of long-term grass-/cropland conversion dynamics on SOC for the Swiss agroecosystem (8‵500 km 2 ). In Switzerland multi-temporal SOC observations are sparse, while the spatio-temporal resolution of available land use data is inadequate to capture small structured and dynamic land use. Thus, we stratified one-time SOC observations of two periods (n 1995–1999  = 1096; n 2011–2015  = 502) into typical land use classes of grass-/cropland conversion regimes to analyze states and trends of SOC. First, based on spectral imagery and auxiliary variables, we established a Random Forest classifier to detect annual grass-/cropland distributions in a spatial resolution of 30 × 30 m for 2000–2015. Second, we used the annual land use maps to derive classes of typical land use dynamics based on a pattern description of conversion regimes. Third, we comparatively assessed the SOC covariate importance (IMP) and SOC sample representation of land use dynamics using terrain and climate covariates. Subsequently, we statistically analyzed SOC across land use dynamics and two periods. The land use classifier shows an Overall Accuracy of 86%, while the annual land use maps deviate by 6%–11% from census data. 46% of the farmland underlies frequent grass-/cropland conversions. The SOC covariate importance of land use dynamics is increased by at least 2.4 times compared to the SOC covariates. The SOC observations consistently represent land use dynamics across SOC covariates. In both periods, SOC increased as the grassland share within the land use regimes increased. The mean SOC for permanent grasslands is 35 g kg −1 and 17 g kg −1 for permanent croplands. Areas of land use conversions where grassland is dominant show increased SOC (29–30 g kg −1 ) compared to areas where cropland was dominant (23–25 g kg −1 ). The mean differences of SOC between the periods and classes are statistically not significant except for permanent cropland, for which the SOC is decreased by 5.2 g kg −1 . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional summer pastures in the Alps have been shaped by centuries of grazing by domestic livestock. To understand the effects of this land use on nutrient cycling, we quantified phosphorus (P) fluxes on a summer farm in southeastern Switzerland. We used high-frequency GPS tracking to record the spatial distribution of animal activities over an entire grazing season, and used these data to model spatial patterns of P depletion and accumulation at various spatial scales (the entire farm, four vegetation groups, 900 m 2 sampling plots and 10 × 10 m 2 grid cells). Since the model depended on parameter values obtained from diverse sources, we tested its robustness using Monte Carlo simulations based upon varying parameter values. The model indicated very small net P fluxes (between − 0.05 and + 0.05 kg P ha −1  yr −1 ) over nearly half (49%) of the pasture, mostly in dwarf-shrub vegetation. In a further 44% of the area, P depletion exceeded ‐0.05 kg P ha −1 yr −1 , representing a total loss of 39.4 kg P yr −1 (2.1 kg P ha −1 ). A positive P balance of over 0.05 kg P ha −1  yr −1 was indicated for 6.6% of the area, representing a total annual accumulation of 16.4 kg P (1.8 kg P ha −1 ). The overall P balance for the entire summer farm was thus negative. The patches of substantial depletion or accumulation formed a mosaic in the areas most used by cattle. More active management of cattle and stable manure is recommended to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most tropical landscapes are mainly composed of dynamic mosaics involving multiple land uses. Different histories of land use management can lead to different successional paths. The aim of this study was to determine if there is a successional floristic gradient related to land use types and how these gradients change across three rural mosaics in Eastern Amazon. We also investigated what are the indicator species across mosaics and land use types and how they change through succession. Five sampling points were established in nine family farms at each mosaic. A detrended correspondence analysis was used to reveal the successional gradient. A multivariate regression tree was used to analyze differences in floristic composition between mosaics and land uses. Floristic similarity between land uses formed successional gradient at the mosaics, in which agricultural land uses represent the early stages of secondary succession and forests represent more advanced stages. Total number of species and total number of shade-tolerant species were correlated with advanced successional stages in all mosaics, but pioneer trees were also correlated with advanced stages in fragmented mosaics. Each mosaic had a distinct successional series due to different management approaches. Where the matrix was mainly composed of forest fragments and the human intervention period was shorter, land use types were more similar to one another as they were grouped into fewer successional stages. Thus, the floristic similarity between land use types appears as an indicator of successional advancement across the mosaics and help determine the regenerative capacity of those areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The C:N ratio is the most widely used indicator of the quality of organic residues and soil organic matter, but little is known about how average soil C:N ratios change when pristine lands are converted to agriculture in the humid tropics. This work aimed to compile the literature on Brazilian soils and calculate percent changes in soil organic carbon (SOC), total N and C:N ratios, after conversion of native vegetation to different land use systems. The hypotheses tested were that land use change affects mean soil C:N ratios across a range of experiments, and that different land use types would affect C:N ratios differently. Overall, average changes for SOC and total N for the 0–20 cm standard depth interval were respectively −14.4 and −13.1% (p < 0.05, n = 171), whereas the average change in the C:N ratio was slightly positive (1.49%) but not significant (p < 0.05). For the 20–40 cm depth interval, SOC also decreased significantly (−13.2%, p < 0.05, n = 72) but not N, whereas C:N ratios increased by 0.21%, again not significantly. Linear regressions suggest that higher or lower C:N ratios upon tillage were more associated to decreased or increased N concentrations, respectively, than to respective changes in SOC. When data were treated separately by major land use systems, the results were generally similar to the overall trends. Therefore, we concluded that land use changes in Brazil, and probably in other humid tropics, have no significant effect on soil C:N ratios in average. However, when C:N effectively changes, its impact for soil fertility and quality can only be interpreted aside with respective changes in SOC and N concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dissolved phosphorus loss pathways are often overlooked relative to erosion P losses but contribute under certain soil land use and management combinations and may be exacerbated by subsurface drainage. Measures of P desorption to water are commonly made in laboratory soil testing and related to an agronomic P test using stronger extractants. We aimed to relate soil drainflow P concentrations as an integrative measure of a range of landscape source and transport processes to soil test P-status and examine other influential soil co-variates. Grassland and cropland sites (n = 28)were sampled across Scotland involving farmers to incorporate local knowledge relating drains to influencing soils and gain important management data not often available. Using quality controls (on-site filtration, guidance and pro-forma data collection) farmers took their own samples and posted them on for laboratory analysis. Soils were analysed for CNP parameters, reactive complexes and soil agronomic P status by Modified Morgan’s P (MMorgP). Drain waters were analysed for total dissolved P (TDP), dissolved molybdate reactive (DRP) and unreactive P (DUP). Grasslands (n = 11) differed from cropland (n = 17) with significantly greater drain concentrations of Total P, DUP, DOC:TDN and soil total C, N and P, oxalate-extractable Fe (Fe ox ) and C:P. Conversely, cropland had greater drain NO 3 , DRP:TDP, soil pH, P ox and reactive surface P-saturation. Significant relationships were gained between both TDP and DUP with MMorgP across all sites, although relationships showed less scatter for grassland than cropland sites. A group of moderate soil P status soils, mostly cropland, with low organic matter status had proportionally greater DRP losses, with soil N content being a significant inverse predictor of DRP concentrations or DRP:TDP ratios in drain water. The results indicated soil test P (MMorgP) as a main control of TDP concentrations via drainage pathways, but that organic matter quality affected dissolved P speciation, but not concentrations. There was greater risk of DRP losses from cropland soils low in organic matter. The study outcomes benefitted from involving the farming community in terms of coupling soil to drain samples and local management knowledge. Compared to batch laboratory results the additional processes integrated by using field drains as a landscape-scale measure of dissolved P losses will give more realistic relationships for change in P leaching between soils differing in P status spatially, or in time following management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

About half of the original one million km 2 originally covered by the tropical dry forest of northeastern Brazil (known as “Caatinga”), has been deforested and replaced by crops and pastures. The remaining forest is constantly subjected to firewood removal. Besides that, pastures and cropping fields are often abandoned after a few years, allowing regeneration of secondary forest patches. These patterns create a mosaic of land use types and dry forest fragments under different regeneration stages, but there is little information about biogeochemical cycling in this ecosystem. Understanding the impacts of these changes, especially on carbon and nitrogen cycling, is important to define appropriate policies to preserve soils and vegetation and to contribute to reduce emissions and remove carbon from the atmosphere. Generating data about these processes require monitoring of large areas for long periods, and the use of models can be useful to improve the understanding of such systems. In the present study, the Century model was calibrated and validated to simulate the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics in areas of caatinga vegetation before deforestation and during regeneration after abandonment. Calibration data were obtained in field plots in Paraiba state and validation data from plots Rio Grande do Norte state, both areas closely monitored for at least a couple of decades. Two types of deforestation practices were evaluated: clear cutting and cutting with stump removal followed by residue burning. The model files were prepared and calibration parameters were adjusted to represent observed values in the calibration site. Afterwards, the adjusted model was used to simulate the dynamics in the validation site, changing only the site soil and climate characteristics. In areas of preserved native vegetation, the validated C stock values of the woody vegetation biomass (21.0 Mg ha −1 ) were similar to the average values observed in the field (20.2 Mg ha −1 ). The soil organic carbon stock (SOC) (30 Mg ha −1 ) and its C:N ratio (11) were also satisfactorily validated by the Century model, indicating that the model can represent very closely the dynamics in areas under preserved forest vegetation. In areas under regeneration after deforestation, the model also represented well the C accumulation in the biomass of the secondary vegetation and the SOC dynamics for the different firewood harvest practices. The model is very sensitive to the type of deforestation, since the removal of the stumps slows down tree growth during regeneration, therefore it must be well detailed in the site management history during model runs. It is also important to create two different crop files for the herbaceous vegetation within the preserved forest or in the open deforested areas, because they comprise different vegetation types. The model was very sensitive to the KLAI variable, which controls the buildup of leaves during the young phase of the trees. After the necessary adaptations, the Century model simulated adequately C and N cycling in areas of Caatinga vegetation in the semi-arid region of Brazil. The model will now be a useful tool to better understand ecosystem functioning in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts are underway in many areas to restore riparian zones to arrest and/or reverse their degradation and the subsequent loss of the ecosystem services they provide. Despite strong links between edaphic conditions and riparian zone function, limited research has tested how soil properties respond to restoration, especially in an experimental context. With this important knowledge gap in mind, we established a field experiment to asssess structural vegetation and soil responses in the eight years following livestock exclusion and replanting in lowland streams in south-eastern Australia. On three streams, paired restored and control sites were experimentally established and we monitored vegetation (stem density, cover of bare ground and tree canopy, and loadings of organic matter), once beforehand, and then biennually after restoration. Selected soil properties (total carbon, total nitrogen, plant-available phosphorus) were sampled once shortly after restoration, then after another five years. Significant changes in structural vegetation occurred (e.g. decreased bare ground, increased plant stem density, organic matter, and canopy cover). In contrast, those soil properties did not respond. A mega-drought occurred throughout much of the study which was immediately followed by severe flooding. The floods redistributed organic matter at our study sites, with this effect mediated by vegetation structure: the probability of organic matter retention was positively correlated with groundcover and stem density of plants. The timing of flooding was also correlated with increased soil carbon and nitrogen, which could be due to increased productivity in these systems (for the former), or potentially due to increased fertiliser inputs or increased fixation (for the latter). Our study is the first to comprehensively and experimentally test how vegetation, litter layer and surface soil properties respond following riparian restoration, and will help guide the development and implementation of other monitoring programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global food demand is expected to increase, affecting required land, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) inputs along with unintended emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHG) and losses of N and P. To quantify these input requirements and associated emissions/losses as a function of food demand, we built a comprehensive model of the food system and investigated the effects of multiple interventions in the food system on multiple environmental goals. Model outcomes are compared to planetary boundaries for land system change, climate change and the global N and P cycles to identify interventions that direct us towards a safe operating space for humanity. Results show a transgression of most boundaries already for 2010 and a drastic deterioration in the reference scenario for 2050 in which no improvements relative to 2010 were implemented. We defined the following improvements for 2050: reduction of waste, less consumption of animal products, higher feed conversion efficiency, higher crop and grassland yields, reduction of N and P losses from agricultural land and reduction of ammonia (NH 3 ) volatilization. The effects of these measures were quantified individually and in combination. Significant trade-offs and synergies in our results underline the importance of a comprehensive analysis with respect to the entire food system, including multiple measures and environmental goals. The combination of all measures was able to partly prevent transgression of the boundaries for: agricultural area requirement, GHG emission and P flow into the ocean. However, global mineral N and P fertilizer inputs and total N loss to air and water still exceeded their boundaries in our study. The planetary boundary concept is discussed in relation to the selected variables and boundary values, including the additional necessity of eliminating the dependency of our food production on finite P reserves. We argue that total N loss is a better indicator of the environmental impacts of the global N cycle than fertilizer N input. Most measures studied in this paper are also on the agenda of the United Nations for Sustainable Development, which gives added support to their implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farms can harbor substantial biodiversity, which in turn sustains the supply of ecosystem services. The effectiveness of farm management to enhance biodiversity, however, may be modified by land cover in the surrounding landscape beyond a farmer’s direct control. We examined how landscape pattern and farm management affect the abundance and diversity of native bees visiting highbush blueberry in Vermont, USA. We quantified landscape pattern at multiple scales and created an agricultural intensity index that represents farm management practices such as pesticide use, mowed and grain crop area. We observed native bee visitation to assess the supply of pollination service provided to blueberry growers. Across 15 farms, 84 wild bee species were observed visiting highbush blueberry, almost a third of bee species recorded in Vermont. Visitation rate, abundance and species richness increased with the amount of natural area surrounding farms. Less intensively managed farms had higher levels of bee visitation, abundance and a more diverse bee community. Bee communities and the pollination services they provide are influenced by interactions between local management and landscape pattern. In particular, intensive farm management appears to compound the negative effects of landscape simplification. To support native pollinators on their farms, growers should consider farming approaches in the context of the broader landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive livestock grazing is a global land use activity that has numerous social, cultural, and environmental benefits. Many marginal zones grazed for centuries are now suffering from abandonment, which has been found to be interrelated with species and functional diversity loss, and has potential consequences for the provision of ecosystem services such as soil fertility and soil carbon storage. We sampled soil and plant species abundance in a total of 64 plots (5 × 5 m), in wet and dry habitats under different grazing regimes (from moderate grazing to grazing abandonment for at least 30 years) in Central Spain. We tested the influence of grazing intensity and water availability on different variables related to soil fertility and also on soil carbon storage. In addition, Community weighted mean and Rao quadratic entropy were calculated for two effect traits (specific leaf area and plant height), in order to assess the ultimate effects of these functional attributes on multifunctionality (i.e., the provision of several simultaneous ecosystem functions). We found that grazing abandonment generally produces a reduction in soil organic matter, total nitrogen, available potassium and phosphorus, aggregate stability and soil carbon storage. In addition, grazing abandonment had a negative effect on soil texture with loss of fine particles (clay and silt) and water holding capacity, but only in dry habitats and in longer-term abandoned situation. In general, soil multifunctionality was higher in wet than dry habitats, decreased with grazing abandonment in both habitats. Soil multifunctionality was indirectly mediated by the functional structure of size and leaf traits of the local plant communities, but our results suggested that macroscale grazing effects, i.e. translocation of nutrients by grazers among habitats via dung and urine deposition, might be important mechanisms that influence soil multifunctionality at the local level. Agri-environmental policies should be aware of the risk of widespread grazing abandonment and take advantage of the benefits of low-intensity grazing regimes for ecosystem services such as soil fertility and stability, and soil carbon storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To mitigate crop damage by insect pests, it is important to determine priority areas for the allocation of available pest management resources, which are usually limited. We tested whether the occurrence of pecky rice damage caused by the sorghum plant bug Stenotus rubrovittatus (Hemiptera: Miridae), a major rice pest in Japan, could be predicted using a spatial model based on land use data. Using a data from a 3-year field study, we examined the relationships among the land use of the area within a 300-m radius around each focal paddy field, the abundance of S. rubrovittatus , and level of pecky rice damage in the Maesawa region of northern Honshu Island, Japan. We also used mapping to visualize potential priority areas using a model and GIS software. From a linear mixed model analysis and model selection by Akaike’s information criterion values, areas of source habitats, soybean fields and rice paddies were selected for the best model, but the abundance of S. rubrovittatus was not. Based on the model’s evaluation, the predicted value of pecky rice damage, when compared with the observed value, was not sensitive enough for a quantitative prediction. However, the model was accurate enough to predict whether the brown rice was first grade, which is of greatest importance to local farmers. Therefore, it is possible that potential pecky rice damage by S. rubrovittatus could be predicted when the spatial arrangement of arable fields in a certain year is determined. Our results will be useful to support decision-making that involves insecticide applications to mitigate pecky rice damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi play an important role in the functioning and sustainability of agroecosystems, but they are also susceptible to changes in land use. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of agricultural land use practices on AM fungal communities and identify the factors that drive their assembly in the Mixed Prairie ecoregion of the North American Great Plains. Soil samples were collected from the four dominant agricultural land use types in this region (annual cropping, native grassland, tame grassland, and roadside ditches) at five locations and at three soil depths (0–15, 15–30, and 30–60 cm). The diversity and composition of the AM fungal communities were assessed using high throughput sequencing (454 pyrosequencing). We found that land use type significantly influenced the diversity and composition of the AM fungal communities. Annual cropland had the lowest diversity and a distinct community composition compared to the other land use types. This effect was most pronounced in the upper soil depth (0–15 cm), but was still evident in the lower depths (15–30 and 30–60 cm). Further analysis found a trend for AM fungal communities at lower soil depths to be a nested subset of communities in the top soil depth. Structural equation modeling revealed that land use affected AM fungal communities indirectly through the modification of plant communities and soil properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite global interest in the role of pollinators for food production, their impact on farmers’ profit, which determines farmers’ livelihood and land-use decisions, is unclear. Although average values of pollinator benefits are generally assumed, there is potential for large spatial variation among crop species and varieties or among pollinator management strategies, even within the same region and year. We studied how quality of honey bee colonies used for pollination services, which included artificial feeding during winter and pathogen control, affect flower visitation, fruit production, and farmers’ profit in the main apple and pear producing region of Argentina (Patagonia). For apple, high-quality colonies exhibited flower-visitation rates 130% greater than conventional colonies. Indeed, high-quality colonies increased fruit set by 15% (increasing production quantity), seed set and fruit sugar content, and subsequently farmeŕs profits by 70%. For pear, colony quality only affected fruit weight of the Abate Fetel variety, but not that of the Packham’s Triumph variety. Fruits were ∼20% heavier in farms deploying high quality colonies but did not contribute to increase farmers’ profits to the extent that it did for apple. In contrast to studies conducted elsewhere, we did not observe any wild pollinators visiting apple or pear flowers, highlighting the fragility of this conventionally intensified crop production system. We found that such orchard systems can suffer large pollinator deficits affecting farmers’ profit. Given that A. mellifera was the only flower visitor, we could estimate the impact of improving colony management on farmer’s profit without the influence of other pollinators. Our study also shows that variations within pome crops, i.e. apples and varieties of pears, in pollinator benefits can be very large, and that the assumption of global average values to guide local recommendations can be misleading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human activities have been responsible for substantial land use changes, including the conversion of different ecosystems to tree plantations (thereafter plantations). Despite that these land use changes can have significant effects on hydrological processes in soils, a global perspective on how land use changes may impact soil water holding characteristics is still lacking. Here we performed a meta-analysis with 11078 paired observations collected from 330 peer-reviewed publications to assess how the conversion of croplands, deserts, grasslands, primary forests, secondary forests, shrublands, and bare lands to plantations might affect soil water content (WC), water holding capacity (WHC), saturated water content (SWC), and capillary holding water (CHW). We found that converting croplands to plantations significantly increased WHC and CHW by 14.4% and 30.1%, respectively. Converting deserts into plantations increased CHW by 25.3%, while converting grasslands to plantations increased WHC by 12.7%. The conversion of bare lands to plantations increased soil SWC and CHW by 37.7% and 41.5%, respectively. In contrast, cropland and grassland conversion to plantations decreased soil WC by 17.8% and 15.6%, respectively. The conversion of primary forests, secondary forests, and shrublands to plantations did not affect soil WC, WHC, SWC, or CHW. Finally, the effects of land use change on soil water holding characteristics were regulated by multiple moderator variables, with climate, geographical location, and tree species functional types being the most important. Overall, our quantitative analyses clearly showed how ecosystem conversion affected soil water holding characteristics at the global scale, which will help us to better understand and predict soil hydrological processes following land use changes under future global change. • Converting croplands and grasslands to plantations decreased soil water content by 17.8% and 15.6%, respectively. • Converting primary and secondary forests and shrublands to plantations did not affect soil water. • Climate, geographical location, and vegetation characteristics were the essential driving factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial necromass carbon (MNC) and glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) are stable microbe-derived sources of carbon (C) in soils. MNC constitutes a considerable portion of soil organic carbon (SOC). GRSP is beneficial for soil aggregation, quality improvement, and C storage. However, the impact of land use transitions from croplands to forests on MNC, GRSP, and their contributions to SOC are not fully understood. To illuminate these unclear dynamics, soil was collected at depths of 0–10 cm from 30 pairs of adjacent corn fields and woodlands in southwest China. These woodlands, mainly consisting of fir, pine, and rubber, were converted from croplands approximately two decades ago. Soil properties, SOC, MNC, and GRSP content were determined. We found that SOC content increased significantly by 23.24% following reforestation. Additionally, the MNC and total GRSP contents were 46.01% and 20.48% higher, respectively, in woodland soils than in adjacent cropland soils. The contribution of MNC to the SOC pools also significantly increased and their quantities were proportional to the increasing contribution of GRSP to SOC. In woodlands, soil NH 4 +-N content is the major factor regulating the accumulation of MNC. For cropland systems, the easily extractable GRSP showed a strong positive correlation with MNC accumulation. Overall, our findings show that reforestation from croplands is conducive to soil C sequestration. The positive relationship between the contributions of GRSP and MNC to SOC provides valuable information in terms of enhancing our understanding of mechanisms underlying the maintenance of soil C stocks through microbe-derived C. [Display omitted] • Decades reforestation significantly increased the SOC, MNC and GRSP contents. • The contribution of MNC to SOC significantly increased following reforestation. • Higher contribution of GRSP to SOC related to higher contribution of MNC to SOC. • NH 4 +-N and EE-GRSP mainly regulated MNC in forests and croplands, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land use change (LUC) and application of N fertilizers have potential to affect soil C and N dynamics and long–term C and N stocks. We aimed to evaluate the effects of the LUC from native vegetation (seasonal semideciduous forest) to sugarcane ( Saccharum spp.) cultivation under successive annual N fertilizer applications on chemical and microbiological attributes of sugarcane–cropped soils. Two field trials were performed during three (Site 1) or four years (Site 2) in southeastern Brazil. Soil sampling was carried out in the following N treatments applied to the crop: control (N–unfertilized plots), organomineral fertilizer (100 kg ha −1 yr −1 N), and synthetic fertilizer (100 and 200 kg ha −1 yr −1 N). Soil samples from native vegetation located near each site were also taken, to serve as reference for studying LUC. For Site 1, successive application of N fertilizers on sugarcane managed under green cane trash blanketing system maintained the C and N dynamics and stocks in soil to conditions similar to those found before LUC. At Site 2, however, modifications in soil attributes caused by LUC were more impacting than the N fertilization management. Compared to synthetic N fertilizers, successive application of organomineral fertilizer did not improve the soil microbiological attributes as well as organic C and total N stocks. Lastly, successive high N input (200 kg ha −1 yr −1 , via synthetic fertilizer) promoted accumulation of mineral N deep in the soil profile, thus increasing potential losses through NO 3 − leaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farm ponds are among the most biodiverse anthropogenic freshwater habitats because of their small size, shallow water depth, and aquatic vegetation. Land-use changes, such as converting riparian vegetation to human use or changing the management practices of farm ponds, are assumed to be major factors that change such ecosystems from a clear-water state to a turbid state, leading to deterioration of water quality and biodiversity in such ponds. Using the database of a large-scale pond survey, we evaluated the effects of surrounding land use (landscape factors and modern pond management practices), fish abundance, and other environmental variables on total phosphorus concentration and taxonomic richness patterns of six biological indicators associated with changes in the trophic state. Local- and landscape-level vegetation structure associated with land use and total fish abundance were among the factors influencing the total phosphorus concentration of farm ponds, a main driver of trophic state changes. In addition, a transition from a clear-water state to a turbid state was associated with lower taxonomic richness of aquatic plants, macroinvertebrates, and adult Odonata, and a higher taxonomic richness of phytoplankton and fish. Based on these results, we discuss potential land-use and pond management strategies for conserving and/or restoring the water quality and biodiversity of farm ponds through maintenance of a clear-water state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop rotation is a commonly used management practice in the central U.S. whereby different agricultural crops are grown on a farm field in successive years to help maintain the productive capacity of the soil. Understanding hydrologic responses to crop rotation is critical for developing appropriate crop rotation strategies for sustainable water resources management. These responses are not well understood due to limited availability of multi-year, crop-specific land use-land cover data. The study focuses on the Smoky Hill River watershed in west-central Kansas, a typical agro-ecosystem watershed in the Central Great Plains of the U.S. A multi-year land use dataset developed for the state of Kansas was used to identify 3-year crop rotation patterns in the watershed for three different periods (2006–08, 2008–10, 2010–12). Out of 276 unique rotations, 21 rotations were found to be dominant, with rotation patterns of grain sorghum-fallow-winter wheat (G-F-W), winter wheat-winter wheat-fallow (W-W-F), and continuous winter wheat (W-W-W) occupying more than 81% of the cropland in each rotation period. From 2006 to 2012, the coverage of grain sorghum increased by 26% and corn by 305%, while winter wheat decreased by 20%. Three 11-year simulation scenarios based on three 3-year crop rotation patterns were implemented in the SWAT model and separately calibrated for streamflow at two gauge sites. The SWAT model produced good calibration statistics for the periods corresponding to the applied crop rotations, while the statistics tended to decrease for other periods, with Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency coefficient becoming unsatisfactory for periods of six to eight years outside of the calibration period. Applying a different number of dominant crop rotations to the SWAT model, it was found that the number can be reduced down to the five most dominant without significant loss in model performance. While the optimum number of crop rotations must be evaluated for each agricultural watershed, this finding provides valuable information for watershed model development and calibration, which can help to avoid issues of over-parameterization and equifinality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the decline of biodiversity due to land-use changes in agricultural landscapes has become a central issue in ecology. Paddy management practices support animal diversity in agricultural landscapes. Using an endangered fish (the Itasenpara bitterling) inhabiting rivers connected to paddy fields as its subject, this study investigated two hypotheses: first, paddy field management affects the spatial distribution of Itasenpara bitterling in the adjacent river, and second, zooplankton and warm water supplied by paddy fields to the adjacent river are the primary factors influencing bitterling abundance. To model habitat suitability for the juvenile Itasenpara bitterling, rivers around paddy fields were examined using geographical information system tools and field survey methods in conjunction with a generalized linear model. The supply of zooplankton from paddy fields to the adjoining river positively contributed to juvenile Itasenpara bitterling abundance. This finding suggests that paddy management practices contribute to zooplankton abundance, and thus increase habitat suitability for juvenile Itasenpara bitterling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate assessment of environmental variables is vital to understanding the global issues of land-use change and climate change, but is hindered by their high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Extensive surveys are needed to model such large-scale problems, with their success dependent on adequate sampling protocols. We present a robust method for designing efficient sampling protocols for environmental variables. The SIMAP method involves the following steps: 1) Selecting sites that cover a representative range of spatial variability, 2) Intensive and spatially-accurate surveys within sites, 3) construction of continuous Maps that replicate the spatial and statistical variation of the surveys, 4) Accuracy simulations based on sampling of these maps and 5) determining a sampling Protocol for subsequent broader surveys. To illustrate the method, we used estimation of soil C stocks in mixed-species tree plantings and pastures to estimate carbon sequestration following reforestation. Soil C was surveyed intensively from these two land uses at several farms that covered a large rainfall gradient to provide contrasting datasets. In this example, sampling simulations showed that a systematic design generally required one less sample than a restricted-random design to achieve the same accuracy, while a simple-random design required substantially more samples. We found taking a minimum of 30 soil samples was needed for both bulk density and C concentration to accurately estimate soil C content within a 1-ha plot in a pasture or tree planting, which suggests many previous surveys of soil C were sampled inadequately. The SIMAP method could be readily applied to a range of abiotic and biotic variables, with the construction of maps allowing most sampling intensities and designs to be tested. Adequate sampling intensities differ widely among environmental variables, so the SIMAP method enables researchers to determine which variables require more investment. For many variables, costs may be minimised while maintaining a high accuracy of the sampling design via bulking of well-mixed samples prior to analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dung beetles (Scarabaeidae) are common detritivores, and especially the tunnelling genera Geotrupes , Anoplotrupes and Onthophagus enhance the soil quality and support nutrient cycles by rapid burial of mammalian dung. These functionally important beetles are faced with a wide range of anthropogenic disturbances and changes in environmental conditions due to land use. We thus conducted quantitative surveys of the abundance (converted to total biomass) of dung beetles and their dung removal rates (g per two days) in 150 forest and 150 grassland sites with varying land-use intensity, located in north-east, central and south-west Germany. We used dung from livestock (cow, sheep, horse) and game animals (wild boar, red deer and fox) to provide a characteristic spectrum of dung resources on each site. Most dung beetle species showed habitat preferences: Anoplotrupes , Typhaeus and several Aphodius species almost exclusively occurred in forests, while most Onthophagus individuals were found in grasslands. In total we collected 18780 individuals from 33 species. The average dung beetle biomass was 36 times higher in forests than in grasslands, and their effective dung removal rate was 3 times increased. The beetles’ total biomass was strongly correlated to their removal rates. In forests, the amount of wood harvesting significantly reduced dung removal rates by 20%, and mowing frequency (−7%) and fertilisation (−4%) had a significant negative effect in grasslands. Dung removal by beetles increased with grazing intensity (+6%), however, and was higher in non-native coniferous forests (+22%). Overall, our study demonstrates negative effects of habitat conversion from forest to grassland, and negative effects of land-use intensity within forests and grasslands on dung beetle activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An accurate and objective estimate on the extent of agroforestry in Europe is critical for the development of supporting policies. For this reason, a more harmonised and uniform Pan-European estimate is needed. The aim of this study was to quantify and map the distribution of agroforestry in the European Union. We classified agroforestry into three main types of agroforestry systems: arable agroforestry, livestock agroforestry and high value tree agroforestry. These three classes are partly overlapping as high value tree agroforestry can be part of either arable or livestock agroforestry. Agroforestry areas were mapped using LUCAS Land Use and Land Cover data (Eurostat, 2015). By identifying certain combinations of primary and secondary land cover and/or land management it was possible to identify agroforestry points and stratify them in the three different systems. According to our estimate using the LUCAS database the total area under agroforestry in the EU 27 is about 15.4 million ha which is equivalent to about 3.6% of the territorial area and 8.8% of the utilised agricultural area. Of our three studied systems, livestock agroforestry covers about 15.1 million ha which is by far the largest area. High value tree agroforestry and arable agroforestry cover 1.1 and 0.3 million ha respectively. Spain (5.6 million ha), France (1.6 million ha), Greece (1.6 million ha), Italy (1.4 million ha), Portugal (1.2 million ha), Romania (0.9 million ha) and Bulgaria (0.9 million ha) have the largest absolute area of agroforestry. However the extent of agroforestry, expressed as a proportion of the utilised agricultural area (UAA), is greatest in countries like Cyprus (40% of UAA), Portugal (32% of UAA) and Greece (31% of UAA). A cluster analysis revealed that a high abundance of agroforestry areas can be found in the south-west quadrat of the Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Sardinia, south and central Italy, central and north-east Greece, south and central Bulgaria, and central Romania. Since the data were collected and analysed in a uniform manner it is now possible to make comparisons between countries and identify regions in Europe where agroforestry is already widely practiced and areas where there are opportunities for practicing agroforestry on a larger area and introducing novel practices. In addition, with this method it is possible to make more precise estimates on the extent of agroforestry in Europe and changes over time. Because agroforestry covers a considerable part of the agricultural land in the EU, it is crucial that it gets a more prominent and clearer place in EU statistical reporting in order to provide decision makers with more reliable information on the extent and nature of agroforestry. Reliable information, in turn, should help to guide policy development and implementation, and the evaluation of the impact of agricultural and other policies on agroforestry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]