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The article discusses the author's response to the comments of K. A. Dodge about his paper on the theoretical formulation "cognitive neoassociationistic analysis" (CNA). Dodge asserts that the author did not specify the aspects of the associations impacting aggressive reactions noting that the formulation diregards the role played by the definition of the crucial situational stimuli. The author counters this highlighting that the CNA does not take for granted a stimulus' meaning but only suggests that in some instances, the resulting aggressive reactions depend on the crucial situational stimulus' connection with a previously encountered highly salient event.

This study examined the construct validity of the Direct & Indirect Aggression Scales (DIAS) (Finland: Abo Akademi University) [Björkqvist et al., 1992c] in 653 adolescents aged 14 to 17 in four Spanish high schools. This paper also examined sex and age differences in aggression. The factor structure of scales was assessed using exploratory factor analysis. Varimax rotation was used, with a factorial structure of three factors: physical aggression, verbal aggression and indirect aggression. The results showed that, compared with girls, boys reported a more frequent use of physical and verbal aggression. However, for indirect aggression no differences were found between boys and girls. A specific examination of sex differences on individual items of the DIAS showed that boys used physical, verbal and indirect aggression more often than girls. The findings also indicated that, as expected, adolescents in lower courses (14-15 years old) rated higher in all types of violence than adolescents in higher courses (16-17 years old). Also, we found that boys used physical and verbal aggression more often than girls did in all age groups studied. This study provided a better understanding of female aggression in the Spanish context and it enhanced our understanding of how aggression is expressed by Spanish girls. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–11, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development of a psychometric measure of indirect aggression for use in an adult population. Items were generated from a series of qualitative interviews. Two versions of the scale were developed; the Indirect Aggression Scale Aggressor version (IAS-A) and Target version (IAS-T). Both versions of the scale were administered to separate samples (nA=294; nT=294). Scales were analysed using item analysis of internal consistency, as well as exploratory factor analysis. Both versions were found to have the same consistent three sub-scales: social exclusion, use of malicious humour, and guilt induction. Preliminary psychometric evaluation suggests that the scales are both sufficiently reliable (with Cronbach's alphas ranging from .81 to .89) and valid. There were no gender differences in either using or being the victim of indirect aggression, and the behaviour was significantly negatively correlated with age. Future validation and potential usage of the measures are discussed. Aggress. Behav. 31:1–14, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study addressed the question of whether there are gender and age differences in aggressive behavior when it is studied as the spontaneous expression of mental contents and not as the result of immediate social interaction. This study also investigated whether aggression, in terms of mental content, is related to temperamental aspects. Aggressive behaviors were examined in make-believe play, in relation to age, gender, and temperament in a near-ecological context, i.e., the Dolls' House Play. The participants, 55 boys and 47 girls, subdivided into three age levels (4 years–4 years and 6 months; 5–6 years; and 7 years and 6 months–8 years and 6 months) were requested to represent what happens in their family 1) during Mealtimes; 2) at Bedtime; 3) on the Saddest day; and 4) the Happiest day; their Dolls' House Play was then recorded. Children's temperaments were measured with the TABC-Teachers' form [Martin, The Temperament Assessment Battery for Children, Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing, 1998]. Data analysis was conducted considering aggressive behaviors in their distinct expressions—physical, verbal, direct, and indirect. Results revealed no statistical differences between boys and girls when all aggressive behaviors were compounded. However, when the distinct types of aggressiveness were considered, boys presented statistically higher levels of physical aggression than girls did. Moreover, boys and girls reacted with different types of aggression in the different emotional contexts created by the four episodes. Few age differences were observed. Surprisingly, there was a significantly greater presence of indirect verbal aggressiveness in younger children. With respect to temperament, a higher level of negative emotivity was significantly linked to a greater degree of aggressive behaviors in some of the episodes. In conclusion, this paper confirms gender differences in the type of aggressive behavior children display even in the absence of any immediate social interaction, which might itself trigger aggression. Aggr. Behav. 30:504–519, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I(3) theory assumes that aggressive behavior is dependent on three orthogonal processes (i.e., Instigator, Impellance, and Inhibition). Previous studies showed that Impellance (trait aggressiveness, retaliation tendencies) better predicted aggression when Instigator was strong and Inhibition was weak. In the current study, we predicted that another Impellance (i.e., normative beliefs about aggression) might predict aggression when Instigator was absent and Inhibition was high (i.e., the perfect calm proposition). In two experiments, participants first completed the normative beliefs about aggression questionnaire. Two weeks later, participants' self-control resources were manipulated either using the Stroop task (study 1, N = 148) or through an "e-crossing" task (study 2, N = 180). Afterwards, with or without being provoked, participants played a game with an ostensible partner where they had a chance to aggress against them. Study 1 found that normative beliefs about aggression negatively and significantly predicted aggressive behavior only when provocation was absent and self-control resources were not depleted. In Study 2, normative beliefs about aggression negatively predicted aggressive behavior at marginal significance level only in the "no-provocation and no-depletion" condition. In conclusion, the current study provides partial support for the perfect calm proposition and I(3) theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current studies examined whether several risk and protective factors operate similarly for intimate partner violence (IPV) and same-sex aggression (SSA) in the same sample, and to assess whether they show similar associations for men and women. Study 1 (N = 345) tested perceived benefits and costs, and instrumental and expressive beliefs about aggression: perceived costs predicted IPV and SSA for both men and women. Expressive beliefs predicted IPV (more strongly for women), and instrumental beliefs predicted SSA. Study 2 (N = 395) investigated self-control, anxiety and empathy, finding that self-control strongly predicted both types of aggression in both sexes. Study 3 (N = 364) found that primary psychopathy (involving lack of anxiety) was associated with IPV for men and SSA in both sexes, whereas secondary psychopathy (involving lack of self-control) was associated with IPV and SSA in both sexes. Overall there were both similarities and differences in the risk factors associated with IPV and SSA, and for men and women. The implications of the findings for theoretical debates about the study of IPV are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 43:163-175, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Displaying markers of coalitional affiliation is a common feature of contemporary life. In situations in which interaction with members of rival coalitions is likely, signaling coalitional affiliation may simultaneously constitute an implicit challenge to opponents and an objective commitment device, binding signalers to their coalitions. Individuals who invite conflict, and who cannot readily back out of conflict, constitute a greater threat than those who avoid conflict and preserve the option of feigning neutrality. As a consequence, the former should be viewed as more formidable than the latter. Recent research indicates that relative formidability is summarized using the envisioned physical size and strength of a potential antagonist. Thus, individuals who display markers of coalitional affiliation should be conceptualized as more physically imposing than those who do not. We tested this prediction in two experiments. In Study 1, conducted with U.S. university students, participants inspected images of sports fans' faces. In Study 2, conducted with U.S. Mechanical Turk workers, participants read vignettes depicting political partisans. In both studies, participants estimated the physical formidability of the target individuals and reported their own ability to defend themselves; in Study 2, participants estimated the target's aggressiveness. Consonant with predictions, targets depicted as signaling coalitional affiliation in situations of potential conflict were envisioned to be more physically formidable and more aggressive than were those not depicted as signaling thusly. Underscoring that the calculations at issue concern the possibility of violent conflict, participants' estimates of the protagonist's features were inversely correlated with their ability to defend themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important focus of recent aggression research has been to identify personality variables that influence the expression of aggression. One such variable may be anxiety sensitivity (AS). Individuals high in AS fear unpleasant anxiety-related physiological sensations and perhaps physiological arousal in general. Accordingly, people high in AS are motivated to avoid situations that produce these sensations. With respect to aggressive encounters, an intense attack by an opponent involves significant physiological arousal. High anxiety-sensitive individuals may therefore attempt to decrease the intensity of the interaction by responding in a non-aggressive or conciliatory manner. To test this possibility, 112 community volunteers completed a measure of AS and a well-validated laboratory task designed to assess aggressive behavior. As predicted, an inverse relation between AS and extreme aggressive responding was found. Specifically, as AS increases, retaliatory aggression is less likely after intense attack by an opponent. Aggr. Behav. 33:1–8, 2007. © 2006 Wiley-Liss; Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study was to examine the effects of aggression and conflict-managing skills on popularity and attitude to school in Russian adolescents. Three types of aggression (physical, verbal, and indirect), constructive conflict resolution, third-party intervention, withdrawal, and victimization were examined using the Peer-Estimated Conflict Behavior (PECOBE) inventory [Bjorkquist and Osterman, 1998]. Also, all respondents rated peer and self-popularity with same-sex classmates and personal attitude to school. The sample consisted of 212 Russian adolescents (101 boys, 111 girls) aged between 11 and 15 years. The findings attest to significant sex differences in aggression and conflict resolution patterns. Boys scored higher on physical and verbal aggression, and girls on indirect aggression. Girls were socially more skillful than boys in the use of peaceful means of conflict resolution (they scored higher on constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention). The attributional discrepancy index (ADI) scores were negative for all three types of aggression in both sexes. Verbal aggression is apparently more condemned in boys than in girls. ADI scores were positive for constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention in both genders, being higher in boys. In girls, verbal aggression was positively correlated with popularity. In both sexes, popularity showed a positive correlation with constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention, and a negative correlation with withdrawal and victimization. Boys who liked school were popular with same-sex peers and scored higher on constructive conflict resolution. Girls who liked school were less aggressive according to peer rating. They also rated higher on conflict resolution and third-party intervention. Physical aggression was related to age. The results are discussed in a cross-cultural perspective. Aggress. Behav. 33:170–183, 2007. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study explored the nature and extent of direct, indirect, and coercive bullying behaviours among adult male forensic patients residing on a Personality-Disorder Unit. There was a subsidiary aim of examining the prevalence and characteristics of four categories of patients, namely ‘pure bullies,’ ‘bully/victims,’ ‘pure victims,’ and those ‘not-involved.’ It was predicted that patients would report more indirect than direct bullying behaviours and that bully/victims would represent the most prevalent category overall. It was also predicted that the four bully-categories would be predicted by the behaviours that they demonstrated. The sample consisted of 53 adult male patients. Bullying behaviour was assessed using the Direct and Indirect Patient behaviour Checklist – Hospital version (DIPC-H). Approximately half of all patients reported engaging in at least one interaction defined as ‘bullying others’ in the previous week. Estimates of behaviours indicative of ‘being bullied’ were markedly higher with over half reporting at least one interaction in the previous week. Indirect aggression was reported more frequently than direct aggression. Within direct aggression, verbal behaviours were reported most frequently. Bully/victims were found to represent the most prevalent category with just over one-third of all patients classified as such followed by pure victims, pure bullies, and those not-involved. The categories were not predicted by personal/descriptive characteristics such as age, ethnic origin; length of time spent in the hospital, on the ward, and in secure settings throughout their life. Bully/victims were predicted by increased negative behaviour, with no behavioural predictors found for the other categories. The implications of these findings for anti-bullying strategies and future research are presented. Aggress. Behav. 31:1–17, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two studies report on the development and preliminary psychometric properties of a new scale measuring criminal attitudes to violence. In Study 1, the responses of a mixed sample of male prisoners were used to select 20 scale items from a larger pool. The final scale (the Criminal Attitudes to Violence Scale; CAVS) was designed so that it had a single-factor structure and was uncorrelated with a measure of social desirability bias. It demonstrated high internal reliability, and a strong relationship to a self-report measure of physical aggression. Significant differences were found in CAVS mean scores for various offence history comparisons, such as whether or not the offender was currently on sentence for a violent conviction. In the second study, most results from the first study were replicated with an independent sample of male prisoners. Further, compared to another scale measuring attitudes to aggression [the EXPAGG Instrumental subscale; Archer and Haigh, 1997b], the CAVS was a better predictor of general attitudes to crime. Mean CAVS scores were again significantly higher for current violent offenders than those on sentence for other types of offences. Lastly, the CAVS was moderately predictive of estimated risk of reconviction and re-imprisonment. Overall these results suggest that this scale measures the construct of attitudes to criminal violence, which partially overlaps two other constructs: attitudes to aggression and attitudes to crime. Aggr. Behav. 30:484–503, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A considerable body of research has accumulated regarding aggression toward health care staff, yet little is known about the contextual factors involved. The present study examined the context within which aggressive incidents occurred and the dynamics of the interaction between staff and patients. Two aspects in particular were investigated; firstly, whether incidents were preceded by some anxiety provoking stimulus and secondly, the assailants' levels of cognitive processing apparent at the time of the incident. A prospective study collected data concerning incidents of physical assault and threatening behaviour in a general hospital. Staff were interviewed soon after the incident occurred. A content analysis determined that 82.8% of incidents involved experiences delivered by the staff victims likely to have provoked anxiety in the assailant. Most commonly, incidents involved staff intervening in the patient's intended behaviour. In addition, in 64% of cases, assailants were actually displaying some impairment in cognitive processing at the time of the incident Data suggest that many patients may not have been fully aware of their situation and might have experienced some difficulty in comprehending the staff member's actions. Patients who do not appear to understand what is happening may require additional time and effort to ensure they comprehend fully and accept what the staff member is intending to do, particularly if patients are experiencing an event likely to increase anxiety levels. Aggr. Behav. 30:534–543, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary question addressed is the role of affect related factors, particularly values, as possible mediators of individual differences in attitudes towards nuclear armament-disarmament issues. One such factors is value placed on children, those individuals who have greater affection for children or who are more supportive of devoting national resources toward meeting children's needs being more supportive of nuclear disarmament and nuclear test moratorium. This relationship was found in a well-educated group of adults with special interest in foreign affairs as well as in college student populations. A significant and strong relationship between the value placed on war as instrument of foreign policy and a pronuclear armament stance was also found in each of these two samples. Measures of individual aggression, however, were minimally and inconsistently related to the attitude towards nuclear armament-disarmament and the attitude towards war measures. The possible role of patriotic and nationalistic values was also explored. Patriotism or love of and pride in one's country was shown to be functionally distinct form nationalism or the view that one's country superior to and should be more powerful than other nations. Patriotism but not nationalism was found to be positively correlated with earl paternal attachment while nationalism but not patriotism, was found to be significantly related to pronuclear armament views. The findings from this series of studies indicate that the analysis of individual differences in nuclear armament-disarmament policy attitudes has usefulness and may be useful for social policy in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have investigated strategies that a participant in dyadic aggression may use to reduce the aggression of the other participant. In one set of these studies the subject is instigated to aggression by an opponent who sets maximum shocks for the subject to receive during the first block of six trials. Following attack-instigation, opponents shift to withdrawal and matching strategies for 18 trials. The withdrawal strategy is an abrupt shift to the lowest levels of shock possible. The matching strategy is the exact matching by an opponent of the shock set by the subject on the previous trial. With these procedures the withdrawal strategy has been the most effective method to reduce aggression. These results led to the suggestion that the effectiveness of the withdrawal strategy may be due to immediate, unambiguous communication by the opponent of his willingness to reduce attack. This hypothesis was tested in the present study by creating a matching condition modified to include immediate, unambiguous communication of willingness to reduce attack. In this withdrawal-matching condition the opponent followed attack with two trials of the lowest levels of shack before shifting to a matching strategy. Although the withdrawal-matching strategy did not lead to shock settings that were significantly lower than the matching strategy, there was evidence that subjects interacting with withdrawal-matching opponents did reduce their shock settings from block 1 to block 4 more rapidly than subjects interacting with matching opponents. A variable matching strategy was also used to provide a more realistic analogy of matching in the mundane world. While subjects with variable-matching opponents also did not set shock levels during blocks 2,3, and 4 that were significantly lower than the matching strategy, there was evidence that subjects in this condition reduced their shock levels more rapidly than subjects with matching opponents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]