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There is now widespread awareness of the impact of anthropogenic influences on extreme floods (and droughts) and thus an increasing need for methods to account for such influences when estimating a frequency distribution. We introduce a parsimonious approach to nonstationary flood frequency analysis (NFFA) based on a bivariate regression equation which describes the relationship between annual maximum floods, x , and an exogenous variable which may explain the nonstationary behavior of x . The conditional mean, variance and skewness of both x and y  = ln ( x ) are derived, and combined with numerous common probability distributions including the lognormal, generalized extreme value and log Pearson type III models, resulting in a very simple and general approach to NFFA. Our approach offers several advantages over existing approaches including: parsimony, ease of use, graphical display, prediction intervals, and opportunities for uncertainty analysis. We introduce nonstationary probability plots and document how such plots can be used to assess the improved goodness of fit associated with a NFFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coverage of in situ observations to monitor surface waters is insufficient on the global scale, and decreasing across the globe. Satellite altimetry has become an increasingly important monitoring technology for continental surface waters. The ESA CryoSat-2 altimetry mission, launched in 2010, has two novel features. (i) The radar altimeter instrument on board of CryoSat-2 is operated in three modes; two of them reduce the altimeter footprint by using Delay-Doppler processing. (ii) CryoSat-2 is placed on a distinct orbit with a repeat cycle of 369 days, leading to a drifting ground track pattern. The drifting ground track pattern challenges many common methods of processing satellite altimetry data over rivers. This study evaluates the observation error of CryoSat-2 water level observations over the Po River, Italy, against in situ observations. The average RMSE between CryoSat-2 and in situ observations was found to be 0.38 meters. CryoSat-2 was also shown to be useful for channel roughness calibration in a hydrodynamic model of the Po River. The small across-track distance of CryoSat-2 means that observations are distributed almost continuously along the river. This allowed resolving channel roughness with higher spatial resolution than possible with in situ or virtual station altimetry data. Despite the Po River being extensively monitored, CryoSat-2 still provides added value thanks to its unique spatio-temporal sampling pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Long term (1921–2011) regime of 23 Alpine rivers of Italy was studied. [•] Linear regression and Mann Kendall test were performed on pristine catchments. [•] Significant trends were found, yearly and seasonally. [•] In stream flows correlated to Global temperature and NAO anomalies. [•] Local assessment of the nexus between climate and hydrology is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: According to the concept of “natural flow regime,” introduced and developed in the 1990''s in aquatic ecology, streamflow can be described using five basic characteristics: magnitude, frequency, duration, period of occurrence and variability. A sixth could be added to these, namely, distribution curve. Our study, which focused exclusively on the temporal variability of these six characteristics, had these objectives: (1) to compare their stationarity, (2) to determine the links among these characteristics and (3) to analyze, for the first time, their relationship to six climatic indices (Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, Artic Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, Niño3.4, Pacific decadal Oscillation and Southern Oscillation Index). To do this, we used the Vermillon River (2670km²) as an example, analyzing the streamflow of heavy spring floods (equal to or greater than the annual flood streamflow), as measured between 1934 and 2000. The comparison of the stationarity of these six characteristics by means of linear regression analysis and Mann-Kendall test revealed that flood duration has increased and flood frequency has decreased during the 1934–2000 period. As for the link among the six characteristics, magnitude, the primary fundamental characteristic, is correlated to all the other characteristics, except for the coefficient of skewness. The AMO (Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation) climatic index is correlated to all the characteristics, except for frequency and coefficient of skewness. This last characteristic is correlated to AO (Arctic Oscillation). This example shows that this concept can serve to link climatology, hydrology, fluvial geomorphology and aquatic ecology for a better understanding of the interactions among the different components of the aquatic ecosystems. The understanding of these interactions is important for better watercourse management and could serve as a potential framework for predicting the evolution of river ecosystems in light of climate change, using a combination of these various disciplines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• The conditional or current mean is widely needed in nonstationary frequency analysis. • Optimal fractional mean FM*, is the mean of a recent subset of record with minimum mean square error. • FM* is preferred to regression and sample means under a very wide range of conditions. • A decision rule is developed for estimator choice under nonstationary conditions. There is increasing attention to the development of a myriad of complex methods for nonstationary frequency analysis (NFA) of floods, droughts and other hydrologic processes. We assume that the need for NFA arises from well understood deterministic mechanisms of change. A common assumption in NFA, questioned here, is that more accurate estimators of hydrologic statistics result when more realistic, complex and sophisticated models are employed. By considering the mean annual flood (drought or other hydrologic event), general conditions are derived when the sample mean (SM) is a more efficient (lower mean square error, MSE) estimator than a regression estimate of the mean (RM). We introduce an optimal fractional mean estimator, FM* , which is simply the SM of the most recent period of record nf* , where f* is the optimal fraction of the full sample n , which leads to minimum MSE among all possible values of f. Interestingly, FM* is generally preferred over RM for attained significance levels associated with the fitted regression model in excess of about 0.05. Given the considerable attention and uncertainty surrounding potential nonstationary conditions, we demonstrate that a parsimonious estimator which exploits an optimal recent subset of the historical record may be more attractive than many of the more complex nonstationary approaches commonly advocated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]