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According to the SLT of alcohol abuse, problem drinkers exhibit coping deficits and hold positive expectancies or beliefs about the effects of alcohol that promote the use of alcohol as a generalized coping strategy (Abrams, D.B. and Niura, R.S. ( 1987 ). Social learning theory. In: Blane, H.T. and Leonard, K.E. (Eds.), Psychological Theories of Drinking and Alcoholism , pp. 131-178. Guilford Press, New York; Wilson, T.G. ( 1987 ). Cognitive studies in alcoholism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 55 (3), 325-331.). Coping is often conceptualized as consisting of emotion-focused, problem-focused, and avoidance coping categories (Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R.S. ( 1980 ). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 21 (3), 219-239; Billings, A.G. and Moos, R.H. ( 1981 ). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 4 (2), 139-157.). Despite some researchers' belief that this is an oversimplification (Carver, C.S., Scheier, M.F. and Weintraub, J.K. ( 1989 ). Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56 (2), 267-283.), studies that have examined the relation of coping tendencies to alcohol consumption in college samples have used these categories (Evans, M. and Dunn, N.J. ( 1994 ). Alcohol expectancies, coping responses and self-efficacy judgements: a replication and extension of Cooper et al .'s 1988 study in a college sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 56 (2), 186-193; Fromme, K. and Rivet, K. ( 1994 ). Young adults' coping style as a predictor of their alcohol use and response to daily events. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 23 (1), 85-97.). The results of the current investigation indicate that researchers should consider the relation of individual coping strategies to different aspects of consumption and alcohol-related consequences, and suggest that the tendency to use substances to cope may be an especially important determinant of alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences for college students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to conduct a preliminary investigation of the associations between facets of impulsivity and alcohol outcomes through motives for drinking responsibly described by self-determination theory (SDT) among college students. Participants (N = 2808) were part of a multisite investigation of college student drinking across 10 universities in 8 states in the USA who reported past-month drinking. Results of a structural equation model testing all possible indirect associations simultaneously indicated that one-third (20 out of 60) of the indirect associations were statistically significant (p<.01). Facets with higher scores representing higher impulsivity (negative/positive urgency) were negatively associated with more internalized motives (autonomous motivation and introjected regulation) and positively associated with less internalized motives (external regulation and amotivation) for drinking responsibly. Facets with higher scores representing lower impulsivity (perseverance and premeditation) demonstrated opposite patterns of associations with motives for drinking responsibly. In turn, more internalized motives were related to higher frequency of protective behavioral strategies use, lower alcohol use severity, and fewer negative alcohol-related consequences; less internalized motives demonstrated an opposite pattern of associations with these alcohol outcomes. The present findings should be replicated using experimental and longitudinal studies for appropriately testing mediation but offer support for a novel hypothesis for motivational pathways from impulsivity to alcohol outcomes that may provide insight into intervention targets, if further supported by future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study tested a mediation model of psychological functioning (i.e., perceived stress, psychological distress, and self-regulation) and risky drinking through a drinking to cope pathway comparing college and noncollege young adults. Participants were 623 young adult drinkers (Mage=21.46) who completed an online survey. Multigroup analyses examined the proposed mediation model for college students and nonstudents. For nonstudents, the indirect effects of psychological distress to alcohol use outcomes (i.e. alcohol quantity, binge drinking frequency, and alcohol-related problems) via coping motives were significant. Further, coping motives significantly mediated the positive effects of self-regulation on alcohol quantity, binge drinking frequency, and alcohol-related problems. For students, greater psychological distress was associated with greater coping motives, which in turn, related to greater alcohol-related problems. Coping motives significantly mediated the positive effect of self-regulation on binge drinking frequency. Findings highlight the different pathways that may result in risky drinking and alcohol problems based on young adult's educational attainment. These results have important clinical implications, particularly for those who have not attended college. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simultaneous alcohol and cannabis (i.e. marijuana; [SAM]) use is prevalent among college students. There is limited research on expectancy effects for SAM use, which are known correlates of use frequency and mediators of treatment outcomes. We examined the unique associations of both positive and negative alcohol and cannabis expectancies with frequency of SAM use among college students. Participants were 1012 college students (70.9% female, 51.8% white, Mage = 19.63) from seven US universities who reported past-month alcohol and cannabis use (77.2% of the sample reported SAM use). Students completed measures of past-month typical weekly alcohol and cannabis frequency and quantity, alcohol and cannabis expectancies, and SAM frequency through an online self-reported survey. A negative binomial regression revealed that higher-order positive, but not negative, alcohol and cannabis expectancies were significant predictors of SAM frequency above and beyond frequency of alcohol and cannabis use, biological sex, and whether the survey was completed pre- or post-COVID-19 campus closures. Specifically, higher frequency SAM use was associated with weaker positive alcohol and stronger positive cannabis expectancies. A second negative binomial regression including lower-order expectancies found that SAM frequency was associated with weaker social and cognitive and behavioral impairment alcohol expectancies and stronger sexual and social facilitation cannabis and liquid courage alcohol expectancies, specifically. Results highlight the importance of comprehensively examining both higher- and lower-order alcohol and cannabis expectancies when examining SAM frequency, and provide avenues of targeted intervention to reduce SAM use among dual users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: College students who identify as a sexual minority consume alcohol at rates that are equal to, or greater than, their heterosexual peers and sexual minority stress factors (e.g. discrimination, sexual orientation-based violence) are predictors of their alcohol use. Despite research supporting the use of brief motivational interventions (BMIs) to reduce alcohol use among college student populations, there has yet to be a single study to investigate whether BMIs are effective for reducing alcohol use and consequences among sexual minority college students. Methods: In this article we provide recommendations for ways BMIs for sexual minority college student drinking can be more affirming by incorporating minority stress factors into their programs. Results: To confirm that no empirical studies examined the efficacy of BMIs, or adapted BMIs to include a focus on minority stress, for reducing alcohol use among sexual minority college students, we first conducted a systematic literature review of BMIs for sexual minority college student drinking using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Conclusion: Next, based on (1) evidence that culturally adapting empirically-support treatments improves outcomes and (2) a conceptual model of minority stress and alcohol use, we recommend ways that BMIs for sexual minority college student drinking could be adapted to include a focus on minority stress experiences. We also recommend ways that existing components of BMIs, particularly alcohol expectancies, coping motives, and normative feedback on peers' alcohol use, could be modified to better align with the experiences and perceptions of sexual minority college students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The acquired preparedness model (APM) posits that relationships between impulsivity-related traits and alcohol use are partly mediated by the biased acquisition of positive alcohol expectancies. Additionally, alcohol administration studies implicate associations between impulsivity-related traits and sensitivity to acute alcohol effects, suggesting that impulsivity-expectancy associations could be partly explained by individual differences in alcohol response. The present study assessed a theoretical extension of the APM by testing the prediction that self-reported sensitivity to alcohol would partly mediate impulsivity-expectancy relationships, and that the addition of alcohol sensitivity variables would account for increased variance in drinking quantity and problems relative to the traditional APM. Method: Young adult heavy drinkers (N = 300, 53% women) completed the Alcohol Sensitivity Questionnaire, the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale, and measures of alcohol expectancies (Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire) and drinking quantity and related problems. Hypotheses were examined using path analysis. Results: Results supported significant indirect effects of sensation seeking on drinking quantity and problems via higher positive expectancies. Results also supported a significant indirect effect of negative urgency on drinking problems via negative expectancies. Although alcohol sensitivity variables showed unique associations with drinking outcomes, the addition of these variables did not improve model fit and hypothesized indirect paths involving impulsivity-related traits, alcohol sensitivity, and expectancies were not supported. Conclusions: Future research is necessary to reconcile these results with laboratory findings suggesting that impulsive traits are frequently associated with sensitivity to alcohol's acute effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Transdermal alcohol monitors, such as Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitors (SCRAMs), enable continuous measurement of alcohol consumption in participants' natural environments free from recall bias and response burden. This paper explores young research participants' experience of wearing SCRAMs to provide insights into the potential of the devices to be used for research on a larger scale. Method: In south-east Australia, participants were recruited among festival attendees (n = 12) and college students (n = 18). Participants wore the SCRAMs over 3–4 days, and upon returning the devices participated in a semi-structured qualitative interview about their experiences of the devices. Results: Most participants reported becoming unaware of the device after initial adjustment and did not believe their drinking patterns had been altered by wearing the SCRAM. Perceived similarities with correctional monitoring equipment led to a number of social interactions with onlookers, but participants generally felt at ease with this. Common issues reported by participants related to the physical discomfort and restrictions caused by the devices, citing problems with sleeping, exercising, and irritation with the clamping mechanism as impediments. Conclusions: Although SCRAMs have not been designed with research purposes in mind, this study highlights their utility in measuring alcohol consumption in real-life and real-time. Most participants suggested that their drinking patterns were unaffected and that any physical discomfort was manageable; however, comfort is a critical consideration in terms of improving the user experience. Adequately controlled validation studies are needed to determine if and how wearing SCRAMs affects retention, behaviour and drinking patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Considerable research has examined impulsivity between individuals, but less research has focused on whether impulsivity fluctuates within a person. Although previous research supports trait levels of impulsivity as a risk factor for increased alcohol involvement, it is unclear whether daily (i.e., state) fluctuations in impulsivity coincide with same-day drinking behaviors. The present pilot study tested (1) the extent to which impulsivity fluctuates within-person; (2) the influence of daily impulsivity on alcohol use outcomes across all days (i.e., whether drinking occurred, the number of drinks consumed, and intentions to drink) and on drinking days only (i.e., whether heavy episodic drinking occurred and the number of problems experienced); and (3) daily affect as moderators of these relationships. Method: Participants were 24 young adult drinkers without postsecondary education who completed a baseline plus 14 follow-up daily surveys. Each day, participants reported their impulsivity, affect, and drinking behavior. Results: Multilevel modeling revealed that 42.5% of the variability in daily impulsivity was due to within-person differences. Impulsivity was related to greater odds of heavy episodic drinking and more alcohol-related problems on drinking days. Positive affect moderated the relationship between impulsivity and alcohol-related problems, and the relationship between impulsivity and drinking intentions. Conclusions: Findings suggest that changes in positive affect and impulsivity may be a risk factor for alcohol problems in a daily context. Future research examining within-person impulsivity and negative outcomes may benefit from considering positive affect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Past research has demonstrated that precollege alcohol consumption is related to college alcohol consumption. But whether precollege drinking is also related to drinking-related behaviors, such as drink monitoring, is unknown. Some have argued that precollege drinking, as a form of experience, should be related to the performance of positive drinking-related behaviors (learning-from-experience hypothesis) whereas others have argued that, given the environment of precollege drinkers, it should be related to negative drinking-related behaviors (bad-habit-formation hypothesis). Methods: A cross-sectional survey of college students (n = 284) at a large Midwestern university in the U.S. Participants completed measures of precollege drinking, college drinking, fraternity membership, and responsible drinking behaviors. Results: Precollege drinkers were more likely to engage in college drinking; the former explained 12% of the variance in the College Drinking Scale, above and beyond other predictors. Precollege drinkers were less likely to monitor their own alcohol consumption or the consumption of their friends. Conclusions: Precollege drinkers were less likely to monitor their own drinking and the drinking of friends, consistent with the bad-habit-formation hypothesis; that is, the notion that early drinking experiences cultivate the formation of irresponsible drinking behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Current models of alcohol problems in emerging adulthood (EA) have not fully considered the developmental context and integrated developmental, social, and emotional mechanisms. Attachment styles contribute to the development of emotion regulation and interpersonal functioning, which are both critical for managing periods of transition. The current study tested a model of alcohol problems in EA that considers emotion dysregulation and interpersonal difficulties as mediators of the relationship between attachment anxiety and avoidance and alcohol problems. Method: Emerging adults (n = 203, ages 18-24, 64.7% female) who drank 2 + times in the past 30 days completed measures at baseline and for 30 days after the baseline assessment. Results: Path analysis was used to test the indirect relationships between attachment anxiety and avoidance and alcohol problems via emotion dysregulation and interpersonal difficulties. There was a positive indirect relationship between anxious attachment and alcohol problems via both emotion dysregulation and interpersonal difficulties, and between avoidant attachment and alcohol problems via interpersonal difficulties, but not via emotion dysregulation. Follow-up analyzes examining pathways from attachment anxiety and avoidance to alcohol problems via the individual emotion dysregulation subscales revealed different emotion regulation pathways associated with higher anxious and avoidant attachment, but were generally in line with analyzes using a summed total score for emotion dysregulation. Conclusions: Interventions for alcohol problems in emerging adults should consider anxious and avoidant attachment as precursors to alcohol problems and should include skills training in adaptive strategies for emotion regulation and interpersonal functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research on alcohol-related outcome expectancies has primarily focused on the likelihood of the anticipated effects, while comparatively little attention has been paid to their subjective evaluation. However, according to expectancy-value theory, the expectation that alcohol use will produce certain consequences and the evaluation of those consequences jointly and interactively determine an individual's decision to consume alcohol. Previous research on this issue was hampered by multiple regression strategies that are plagued by measurement error and low statistical power. Method: To overcome this limitation, we investigated expectancy-value interactions in predicting drinking variables by drawing on latent variable methodology using the five expectancy-value dimensions from the Comprehensive Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire. Expectancy-value models were tested in a sample of college students (N =1053) and a sample of alcohol-dependent inpatients (N = 699). Results: Significant expectancy-value interactions emerged concerning social assertiveness among students as well as for aggression and tension reduction among alcohol-dependent inpatients. The relationship between expectancy and drinking was strongest for pronounced (either positive or negative) valuations of the effect. Effect sizes were small, however. Conclusions: The results are in partial agreement with basic premises of expectancy-value theory. However, this study also identifies limits to the universal validity of expectancy-value theory, given that prediction of alcohol use depends on the effect domains, alcohol outcome measures, and study populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective:Recent research has focused on motives as proximal factors of alcohol use that relate to problematic outcomes. High-risk situations for use are also salient predictors of use and negative consequences, and there is some evidence to suggest that situations of use align with motives for alcohol use. The goal of the current study was to examine whether situational use variables can potentially be a proxy for motives for use by evaluating the relationships between motives, rates of alcohol use, and situational use variables (situations of use, locations of use, use companions). Methods:We utilized data from a randomized controlled treatment trial of a brief personalized feedback intervention and subsequent online assessments that focused on motives for alcohol use among 303 college students (77.9% female, mean age = 19.8 years). Results:Results substantiated several theoretical relationships between Social motives and drinking in positive affect situations with others, Coping motives and drinking alone in negative affect-driven situations, Enhancement and use in positive affective situations, and Conformity and drinking in situations that are not indicative of pleasant emotions. However, we failed to find significant relationships with overall rates of use except for among Enhancement-oriented drinkers. Conclusion:Results provide insight into the relationships between motives and situations of use. Findings broadly support the use of situational measures as an indicator of motives and suggest future avenues of research and intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background:Alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors (SRBs) are significant problems on college campuses. College women are at particularly high risk for negative consequences associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unwanted pregnancy. Methods:The current study (n = 160) examined the effect of a brief, web-based alcohol intervention (n = 53) for college women on reducing SRBs compared to an assessment only control (n = 107) with a randomized controlled trial. Outcome measures included condom use assertiveness and number of vaginal sex partners and data were collected at baseline and three-month follow-up. Results:Regression analyses revealed that the alcohol intervention was associated with higher levels of condom use assertiveness at a three-month follow-up. Additionally, more alcohol use was associated with less condom use assertiveness for those with more significant sexual assault histories. Conclusions:These findings suggest that alcohol interventions may impact college women’s beliefs but not behavior, and future interventions should more explicitly target both alcohol and sexual risk to decrease risky behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

BackgroundCurrently, alcohol consumption levels are significantly higher among younger age groups. However, previous research has noted the diversity of motivations and patterns. These patterns of drinking have yet to be synthesised into a typology. The aim of the current study was to synthesise information from studies that produced types of alcohol consumption among young people.MethodQuantitative and qualitative literature investigating the different types of drinkers among young people [aged 12–24 years], published in peer reviewed journals, were eligible for inclusion in this systematic review. MEDLINE, PsychInfo and CINAHL were systematically searched for relevant articles published between January 1st 2000 and December 31st 2014. Included papers were critically appraised. A narrative synthesis approach was employed based on guidance from the UK Economic and Social Research Council.ResultsIn total, 13 studies were eligible for inclusion: 11 quantitative, one qualitative and one mixed methods. Six classes of drinkers were formed within this typology. Abstainers reported no alcohol consumption. Light drinkers reported drinking small amounts of alcohol infrequently. In comparison, social and hedonistic drinkers drank most in social situations and to have fun. Heavy and harmful consumers reported increased volume and frequency of consumption including harmful consequences.ConclusionCurrently, policy makers are attempting to combat the high levels of harmful alcohol consumption among young people. The current typology provides guidance for targeted interventions in addition to a practical analytic tool in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social anxiety has been linked with harmful alcohol use, alcohol-related negative consequences, and less use of protective behavioural strategies among college students. The inability to resist peer influence has also been shown to be predictive of college student drinking behaviour. The current study examined the moderating role of resistance to peer influence in the relationship between social anxiety, alcohol-related negative consequences and protective behavioural strategies. Participants were 562 undergraduates who completed measures of social anxiety, resistance to peer influence, harmful drinking patterns, alcohol-related negative consequences and protective behavioural strategy use. As predicted, students with higher levels of social anxiety who also expressed being more susceptible to peer influence reported more harmful drinking and alcohol-related negative consequences, and fewer protective behavioural strategies. Thus, students with more social anxiety who may have been drinking in order to be accepted by their peers were more likely than others to engage in more problematic and less safe drinking behaviours. Interventions that focus on harm reduction with college students who drink and experience social anxiety would benefit from addressing their need to be accepted by peers and how that relates to their use of protective behavioural strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine young adult motivations about drinking through qualitative analysis of client–therapist dialogue in motivational interviewing (MI) sessions. Participants were a random selection of 26 young adult alcohol users involved in a large hospital-based clinical trial (N = 423). All sessions in the clinical trial were audio-recorded and transcribed. For the present study, discussions of the “Pros and Cons of Drinking” were extracted, coded and thematically organized using grounded theory methods. These young adult discussions centered on motives for drinking behavior (i.e. positive motives, or reasons to drink) and motives against drinking (i.e. negative motives, or reasons not to drink). The most salient themes were interpersonal, followed by physiological and intrapersonal in nature. Physiological themes were most often negative motives, or reasons not to drink, such as getting sick and experiencing hangovers. Intrapersonal themes were primarily positive motives, or reasons to drink, that often highlighted the role of alcohol in mood management. The most common drinking motives, positive or negative, were interpersonal, illuminating the important role of social group membership in young adult alcohol use. Further, interpersonal influences on alcohol use appeared to depend on rejection sensitivity, suggesting that young people could especially benefit from an emphasis on social skills training and abstinence-supportive relationships when trying to reduce alcohol use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though social anxiety disorder and alcohol use disorders commonly co-occur, the mechanisms involved in social anxiety and hazardous drinking among college students are not well understood. The current study contributes to the emerging literature on social anxiety and college drinking as the first known study to test howpositive(e.g. “I would feel at ease in social situations”) andnegative(e.g. “I would make a fool out of myself”) alcohol outcome expectancies (AOE)specific to social situations(social AOE) impact the association between social anxiety and hazardous alcohol use among 718 undergraduates (61% women;Mage = 19.50, SD = 1.45; 85% White). Results supported the mediation, but not the moderation models. There were positive indirect effects of social anxiety through positive social AOE and negative indirect effects of social anxiety through negative social AOE on both hazardous drinking outcomes (i.e. alcohol consumption and alcohol problems). Findings suggest that there could be competing pathways for increasing (positive social AOE) and decreasing (negative AOE) risk for hazardous alcohol use in socially anxious college students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although personalised feedback interventions (PFIs) for alcohol misuse among college students have demonstrated reliable efficacy, effect sizes are modest and little improvement in efficacy has been observed in the last 15 years. More systematic and explicit application of theory may enhance our understanding of PFI mechanisms and lead to incremental improvements in efficacy. The current review identified intervention trials of PFIs (N = 93), the theoretical frameworks (N = 20) on which they were based, the extent to which theory was utilised in development and evaluation of the intervention, and the principles of behaviour change implicated in each of those theories. Though the majority of studies identified a theoretical framework for interventions, theory is not being tested uniformly across current studies of PFIs. A review of the most commonly cited theories resulted in identification of 11 theoretical principles of behaviour change: alternatives to behaviour, autonomy, commitment, expectancies, goals/change plan, interpersonal discrepancy, intrapersonal discrepancy, awareness of contingent outcomes, self-efficacy, skills necessary to overcome barriers and therapeutic relationship. Potential applications of these theoretical principles in PFI development and testing are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Social anxiety nearly quintuples the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder. Although accumulating data suggest that socially anxious persons drink to manage negative effect, socially anxious persons suffer from elevations in both anxiety and depression. Thus, the present study sought to determine whether social anxiety was related to drinking to cope with anxiety or depression and whether drinking motives accounted for the relation of social anxiety to drinking problems among 461 (74% female, 48% with clinically elevated social anxiety) undergraduate drinkers. Compared to women with more normative levels of social anxiety, women with clinically elevated social anxiety endorsed more drinking to cope with anxiety and conformity motives. Drinking to cope with anxiety uniquely mediated the relation of social anxiety and drinking problems among women. Among men, social anxiety was uniquely related to conformity motives, which mediated the social anxiety-drinking problems relationship. Findings support prior work indicating that socially anxious men and women may use alcohol differently and provide unique data on the importance of drinking to cope with anxiety specifically among socially anxious women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acquired preparedness model suggests that links between personality and substance use are mediated by expectancies. In contrast, expectancy-moderated links between personality and substance use also have support in previous research. This study sought to extend the acquired preparedness model to a diverse sample of frequent marijuana users. Tension-reduction expectancies, impulsivity, and ounces of marijuana used per month were assessed in 5996 participants recruited from a marijuana policy listserv. Tension-reduction expectancies partially mediated the relation between impulsivity and marijuana use. Additionally, expectancies and impulsivity interacted to predict marijuana use, with impulsivity showing a stronger link to use when expectancies increased. These findings support the acquired preparedness model of substance use as well as previous work on expectancy-moderated links between personality and substance use. Impulsive individuals are particularly likely to use substances when they have positive expectancies about them. Challenging these marijuana expectancies might prove useful in preventing problematic use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to examine whether social exclusion and anger affect alcohol consumption and value. Sixty participants who were excluded, provoked, and could then pour and consume beverages (labeled alcohol/juice), reported their perception of the beverages' value. Social exclusion increased the influence of anger provocation on alcohol drinking. When participants received a restricted amount of the beverages as an evaluative target, social exclusion and anger provocation interacted on ratings of the alcoholic-labeled beverage's hedonic value - when not anger-provoked, socially excluded participants wanted to drink more alcohol and were willing to pay more than socially accepted participants. Conversely, when provoked, the socially included participants reported higher hedonic value. Exclusion and anger increased alcohol consumption without conscious feelings of pleasure or other subjective liking report, and decreased objective indicators for the beverages' hedonic value (implicit liking-craving or willingness to pay for alcohol and wanting to drink more). When combined, exclusion and anger promote irrational drinking behavior. Implications regarding the involvement of alcohol in the non-conscious emotional responses to exclusion are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the unique contributions of protective behavioral strategies and social norms in predicting alcohol-related outcomes. Participants were 363 students from a large public university in the Midwest who reported at least one binge-drinking episode (5+/4+ drinks for men/women in one sitting) in the past 30 days. Data were collected from January 2010-March 2011. We used the structural equation modeling (SEM) to test models where protective behavioral strategies (PBS) and social norms were predictors of both alcohol use and alcohol-related problems, after controlling for the effects of gender. Both PBS and descriptive norms had relationships with alcohol use. PBS also had a relationship with alcohol-related problems. Overall, the findings suggest that PBS and social norms have unique associations with distinct alcohol-related outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research examining the relationship between readiness to change and alcohol consumption among college students is inconsistent. The purpose of the present study was to extend these findings, using two different measures of readiness to change. We hypothesized a curvilinear effect would occur such that the relationship between readiness to change and alcohol use would be relatively low for students low and high on readiness to change, whereas the relationship would be relatively high for those with moderate levels of readiness to change. Data were collected from two studies: Study 1 consisted of 263 undergraduate students and Study 2 consisted of 245 undergraduates participating in either intercollegiate or recreational athletics at three US universities. In Study 1, we examined the association between both linear and quadratic scores on a readiness to change measure and alcohol use. In Study 2, we examined the relationship between scores on a stage of change measure that included subscales indicative of different levels of readiness to change and alcohol use. The pattern of relationships supported the existence of an effect where the highest levels of alcohol use occurred among those with scores representing moderate levels of readiness to change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

College students exhibit high levels of heavy drinking that are often associated with negative consequences, including unsafe sexual activity, injury, and legal trouble. The fact that students continue to drink despite these outcomes suggests they experience salient positive consequences. A known risk factor of drinking is the personality trait sensation seeking (SS), which may influence how a person interprets alcohol-related consequences and ultimately result in increased alcohol consumption. In this study, we examined the relations between SS, positive and negative consequences, and drinking among college students. Participants were 206 undergraduates who reported recent heavy drinking (53% female, 65% white, and 26% African-American). Students with higher levels of SS reported drinking more and also indicated experiencing more positive consequences as a result of their drinking than participants with lower levels of SS. This relation between SS and drinking was mediated by positive consequences, suggesting that one reason why students with higher levels of SS drink more than other students is that they experience more positive consequences from drinking. This could be due to increased social interactions typical of high SS students, resulting in a more positive appraisal of the drinking context. These conclusions may inform college drinking prevention and intervention programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic behavioral and neurobiological research has demonstrated that deficiencies in naturally occurring substance-free rewards are both a cause and a consequence of substance abuse that are due in part to the systematic discounting of delayed substance-free rewards. Existing brief motivational interventions (BMIs) for alcohol abuse do not target this mechanism of change. The goal of this uncontrolled pilot study was to evaluate a behavioral economic Substance-Free Activity Session (SFAS) to traditional alcohol BMIs. Participants were 13 college freshmen who reported two or more heavy drinking episodes ( >5/4 drinks in an occasion for men/women) in the past month. All participants completed a baseline assessment and a BMI that addressed alcohol use. In addition, participants received the SFAS, a 50-min individual session that attempts to increase engagement in constructive alternatives to drinking by enhancing the salience of delayed rewards (academic and career success) and the patterns of behavior (academic and extracurricular engagement) leading to these outcomes. At the 1-month follow-up assessment, participants reported significant reductions in heavy drinking, and moderate to large effect size reductions in weekly drinking and peak blood alcohol levels. The results of this pilot study provide preliminary support for the efficacy of this behavioral economic intervention session as a supplement to traditional alcohol BMIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alan Marlatt was an innovator and a champion of substance abuse prevention and treatment in Native American communities. He was the principal investigator of a National Institutes of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism funded study called the Journeys of the Circle project. Journeys of the Circle was a collaboration between the University of Washington and the Seattle Indian Health Board and resulted in the Canoe Journey - Life's Journey prevention curriculum for Native adolescents. The purpose of Canoe Journey - Life's Journey is to learn life skills using cultural beliefs and practices. The curriculum uses the metaphor of going on a Canoe Journey to teach communication, problem solving, decision-making, and coping skills. It is widely recognized as a promising practice and has been implemented in numerous tribal communities in the United States and Canada. Alan's impact on Native communities extends far beyond Canoe Journey - Life's Journey. Relapse prevention is an integral part of most treatment programs and harm reduction strategies are becoming increasingly more common in Native communities. Alan's passing is a profound loss but his teachings will continue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

G. Alan Marlatt's research and other professional efforts have profoundly influenced the science and practice of harm reduction. Marlatt's balanced placebo drinking research challenged prevailing attitudes about the loss of control and illustrated the potency of beliefs in predicting drinking behavior. His courageous defense of the Sobells during the controlled drinking controversy was a first step toward legitimizing harm reduction goals. His harm reduction interventions are best practices for college student drinking, and the excellence of those programs has elevated the stature of harm reduction interventions in the US. He developed mindfulness-based harm reduction strategies for those managing relapse or seeking moderation goals in treatment. His interpretation of the science of harm reduction compelled him to speak on behalf of consumers, advocating for alternative forms of treatment rather than a one-size-fits-all model. He collaborated with community stakeholders to extend culturally relevant harm reduction programs into traditionally disempowered communities. Somehow, Marlatt also found time to mentor the next generation of harm reduction scholars and practitioners. The stature of harm reduction today is largely the result of Marlatt's dedication and professionalism. Though he is sorely missed, the field will be continued to be shaped by his ideas for many years to come. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior to the publication of Marlatt, Demming, and Reid's (1973, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81, 233-241) manuscript entitled 'Loss of control drinking in alcoholics: An experimental analogue,' the disease model of alcoholism prevailed. Central to the model was the belief that alcoholics suffer from a loss-of-control such that any drinking resulted in unregulated consumption and intoxication. In a masterfully crafted experimental investigation that represented an early use of the balanced placebo design (BPD), G. Alan Marlatt and his colleagues demonstrated that a priming drink of alcohol had no effect on how much alcoholics consumed during an ad libitum assessment of alcohol consumption. Marlatt's publication reflected a departure from conventional wisdom by challenging the strict adherence to the disease model of alcoholism and contributed to advancements in both addictions research and theory. This article is dedicated to describing these advancements including: (1) a revised understanding of the symptomatology and etiology of alcoholism; (2) the development of cognitive-behaviorally oriented alcohol interventions; (3) the effects of alcohol on behavior and the role of alcohol expectancies; (4) the use of the BPD; and (5) the development of behavioral assessment strategies for addictions by innovating in vitro procedures for measuring ad libitum alcohol consumption unobtrusively. In the 40 years since its publication, Marlatt et al. (1973, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81, 233-241) continues to have a profound impact on research and theory and is a testament to G. Alan Marlatt's status as a visionary and pioneer in the field of addictions research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we discuss Alan Marlatt's contributions to the prevention and reduction of alcohol-related harms among college students. We consider Alan's early research that later led to the development and evaluation of college student drinking programs, and examine Alan's impact, both directly and indirectly through those he mentored and trained, as a scientist-practitioner. We review the recognition of the efficacy of Alan's programs, including the Alcohol Skills Training Program and Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students, in addition to extensions of these interventions in more recent studies. Finally, we discuss how Alan's work influences interventions with college student drinkers today, and how future directions will continue to be informed by his vision and values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Athlete Drinking Scale (ADS) was designed to assess a set of drinking motives unique to intercollegiate athletes. Although results from initial validation studies were promising (Martens, M. P., Watson, J. C., Royland, E. M., Beck, N. C. 2005. Development of the athlete drinking scale. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 19:158–164; Martens, M. P., Labrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., Pedersen, E. R. 2008. Understanding sport-related drinking motives in college athletes: Psychometric analyses of the athlete drinking scale. Addictive Behaviors 33:974–977), to date only cross-sectional studies on the measure have been published. The purposes of this longitudinal study were to determine whether the factor structure of the ADS remains consistent across a group of athletes’ competitive season and off-season, determine whether scores on the ADS increased during athletes’ competitive seasons, and assess the relationships among athlete-specific drinking motives and drinking behaviors across these two time points. Complete data were obtained from 153 athletes representing 11 varsity sports teams competing at the NationalCollegiate Athletic Association Division I level. Longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis at the subscale level indicated that fit indices for the hypothesized three-factor model of the ADS were excellent. Repeated measures ANOVA indicated that athlete-specific drinking motives increased during the athletes’ competitive seasons, and scores on the ADS subscales were associated with alcohol use and alcohol-related problems at both time points. Results provide support for the validity of the ADS and have implications for researchers and clinicians working in the area of alcohol prevention among collegiate athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately 15% of individuals aged 18-35 currently report use of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). In order to identify and assess the subjective effects of MDMA, the MDMA Beliefs Questionnaire (MDMA-BQ) was developed and validated on a sample of college students. Participants (N = 913) responded to items describing possible outcomes of using MDMA. Principal components analyses (PCA) revealed a five-factor solution. The five scales were named: (a) Global Positive Effects; (b) Safety; (c) Health Risks; (d) Psychological Consequences; and (e) Dose/Mixing Effects. The MDMA-BQ scale scores were associated with level of MDMA use. Overall, nonusers' scale scores for negative outcomes associated with MDMA were higher than individuals who endorsed having used MDMA once or more, and participants who had used MDMA rated the positive outcome expectancies higher than nonusers. Findings are consistent with previous research and provide evidence of construct validity for the MDMA-BQ. In a second study, scores on the Global Positive Effects, Safety, Health Risks, and Dose/Mixing Effects scales of the MDMA-BQ predicted subsequent self-reported MDMA use and intent to use MDMA in hypothetical scenarios. The MDMA-BQ appears to be a useful psychometric tool in MDMA use research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to examine the effects of describing alcohol-related aggression incidents on alcohol-aggression outcome expectancies. Male students (N = 122) were allocated to Aggression, Relaxation or Control conditions. Those in the Aggression condition recalled experiences of alcohol-related aggression; those in the Relaxation condition recalled experiences of alcohol-related relaxation; and those in the Control condition recalled neutral events. An alcohol-aggression (AA) outcome expectancy measure showed that recalling alcohol-related aggression led to a significant increase in AA immediately after the intervention, which fell to pre-intervention levels after two weeks. The risk of aggression or violence may be temporarily elevated by talking about AA experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to further understand the role of individual differences in alcohol use, recent research has focused on sensitivity to punishment and reward and the relationship which these predispositions have to substance use. Likewise, considerable research interest has been invested in investigating the role of coping strategies in predicting alcohol use. The current study aimed to expand this research by exploring the moderating role of coping in the relationship between sensitivity to both reward and punishment, and drinking behaviour. A total of 161 participants (55 males; 106 females) completed self-report measures assessing sensitivity to reward and punishment, coping strategies and drinking behaviour. Regression analyses revealed that sensitivity to reward, avoidant and emotion-focused coping strategies were positively related to drinking behaviour. Additionally, emotion-focused strategies were found to moderate the relationship between both sensitivity to reward and punishment, and alcohol use, while avoidant strategies moderated the relationship between sensitivity to reward and drinking. These results suggest a relationship between reward sensitivity and coping in determining alcohol use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has indicated that alcohol consumption increases the perceived attractiveness of opposite-sex faces. This may contribute to the known effects of alcohol on risky sexual behaviours. We investigated the effects of alcohol consumption on the perception of opposite-sex faces, whilst controlling for alcohol expectancy. In a balanced placebo design, males and females were allocated to one of the four groups: (1) told they would receive alcohol and did; (2) told they would receive alcohol but did not; (3) told they would not receive alcohol but did; (4) told they would not receive alcohol and did not. They then rated opposite-sex faces and neutral stimuli for 'attractiveness'. Roughly three-quarters of the sample were classified as hazardous or harmful drinkers by the AUDIT questionnaire. No significant differences between groups in ratings of attractiveness for either set of stimuli were found. Findings remained the same in a reduced sample for whom the experimental manipulation was successful (as assessed by post-test questioning). Thus, we did not find that alcohol ingestion enhanced ratings of opposite-sex faces. Nor did we find that, in the overall sample, the expectation of receiving an alcoholic drink influenced opposite-sex face ratings. Possible explanations for these null findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of contextual cues in motivating alcohol and other drug use may be influenced by the perceived availability of the substance. This study examined the relationship between perceived availability and alcohol cue reactivity using a quasi-experimental design that harnessed the legal age of alcohol availability in the United States. Participants were 95 (76% male) heavy drinkers in a 2 × 2 between-subjects quasi-experimental design, crossing cue exposure (alcohol cues vs. neutral cues) and availability information (ages 19-20 [unavailable] versus ages 21-22 [available]). The results indicated significant main effects of cue type, with alcohol cues eliciting significantly larger increases in subjective urge to drink and positive affect, as well as increased consumption of placebo alcohol. Moreover, a significant main effect of availability information was detected, with unavailability information generating a greater urge to drink. Potential mechanisms underlying this effect and future directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. To examine cannabis users’ patterns of use, their experiences of the positive and negative effects of use, their use of other substances and possible health risks, in the context of increased prevalence of use. Methods. A snowball sample of student cannabis users in the South East England ( n &ThickSpace;=&ThickSpace;176) were interviewed with an extensive structured questionnaire that asked about frequency of use of cannabis, of other substances, of methods of use and of positive and negative effects of use. Findings. There were two common types of users; casual users who did not buy cannabis often and regular users who often bought cannabis and used it most days. Fewer users bought cannabis often and used it in a more controlled pattern. The effects of use were similar to those described by Tart [Tart, C. T. (1970). Marijuana Intoxication: Common Experiences. Nature , 226 , 701–704], being predominantly positive and about relaxation and sensuality, although negative effects on mood and cognition were also experienced. Users tended to mix cannabis, tobacco and alcohol more than mixing with other drugs. The biggest health risk posed was tobacco use. Regular users showed more signs of dependence than casual or controlled users. Being in a road traffic accident whilst intoxicated was a strong predictor of other signs of dependence. Signs of dependence did not predict heavy use, which was instead most strongly predicted by seeing cannabis as one of life's main pleasures. Conclusions. Cannabis use has normalised, not all users use in problematic ways and use is moving away from other controlled drugs and towards alcohol and tobacco in a number of respects. There needs to be initiative to dissuade cannabis users from smoking tobacco. As with alcohol, those involved in accidents need to be questioned about their cannabis use and referred to drug services as required. Interventions for heavy cannabis use and dependence should be sensitive to the positive aspects of heavy use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study expanded the earlier work conducted by this laboratory ( Hasking, P.A. and Oei, T.P.S. (2002a) . The differential role of alcohol expectancies, drinking refusal self-efficacy and coping resources in predicting alcohol consumption in community and clinical samples. Addiction Research and Theory , 10 , 465-494), by examining the independent and interactive effects of avoidant coping strategies, positive and negative expectancies and self-efficacy, in predicting volume and frequency of alcohol consumption in a sample of community drinkers. Differential relationships were found between the variables when predicting the two consumption measures. Specifically, while self-efficacy, seeking social support for emotional reasons and using drugs or alcohol to cope were independently related to both volume and frequency of drinking, complex interactions with positive and negative alcohol expectancies were also found. These interactions are discussed in terms of the cognitive and behavioural mechanisms thought to underlie drinking behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

College alcohol use and abuse is a serious problem, in part because many college students do not view their drinking as problematic. Consequently, a harm reduction approach is especially appealing for the prevention of alcohol use and associated negative consequences among this population. By taking steps to reduce the harmful effects of drinking, without requiring abstinence, harm reduction holds the potential to reach many young adults who would not otherwise utilize traditional intervention efforts. The Lifestyle Management Class (LMC) was developed as a holistic approach that embraces the tenants of harm reduction. The LMC is delivered in two, 2-h group sessions that include didactic presentations, personal exercises, individualized feedback, and facilitated discussion. The basic philosophy, content, and processes of the LMC are presented in this article. A recent intervention outcome study is also summarized in which the LMC was found to be effective as both a targeted and universal intervention approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored gender differences in the extent that alcohol affects the perceived severity of partner aggression, and assessed the relationship between partner aggression and drinking pattern. Respondents were asked questions related to their own drinking pattern and the most severe incident of physical aggression experienced by and to a spouse/romantic partner during the previous two years as part of a general population survey of 2027 adults in the UK conducted by interviewers using both oral and computer-assisted question format. Approximately, 20% of respondents reported partner aggression, with drinking by one or both partners occurring in 35-40% of incidents. Alcohol use at the time of aggression was associated with increased severity of aggression, anger and fear, especially for aggression by a male toward a female respondent. Drinking patterns of the respondent and the partner predicted alcohol involvement in aggression, but not aggression that did not involve alcohol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alcohol expectancies, i.e. the immediate effects of alcohol anticipated by an individual, have been shown to predict initiation of drinking during adolescence as well as transition from nonproblem to problem drinking. Moreover, cross-sectional studies have revealed that alcohol expectancies are related to both frequency and quantity of alcohol use. However, research has focused almost exclusively on nonclinical samples. While numerous studies have examined alcohol expectancies in college samples, little is known about the expectancies of alcohol-dependent individuals. The present study aimed to expand the research on alcohol expectancies by establishing the factor structure of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ), the most frequently used expectancy scale, in a large sample of alcoholism treatment clients ( N = 685). Furthermore, gender differences and the relationship between expectancies and alcohol consumption were examined. Exploratory factor analysis identified two dimensions of alcohol expectancies. Factor one represented alcohol expectancies regarding social assertiveness, self-confidence, and mood management. With two exceptions all items loading on the second factor described alcohol-induced enhancement of sexual feelings. Comparing the findings of the present study with the results of previous expectancy research based on the responses of college students and other nonclinical samples revealed that these factors appear to be relatively uniform across studies. However, item statistics suggested that the structure derived from factor analysis may have been influenced by rate of endorsement. Women scored lower on factor one and the total score than men. Inclusion of the total score in regression analysis added to the prediction of alcohol consumption. The present results suggest that the findings of previous research should be interpreted with caution, since AEQ scores are not comparable across groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used a novel cue exposure paradigm to investigate the differences between high- and low-risk drinkers in their desire to drink during a drinking session. Fifty-three self-selected participants were assigned to high- or low-risk drinking groups based on their self-reported consumption of alcohol, then compared on their desire to drink over a 90 min paced drinking session. High-risk drinkers showed increasing desire over the session, while low-risk drinkers' desire began to decrease after only a short drinking period. The perceived and actual effects of the alcohol did not appear to be able to account for the difference. Results are discussed with reference to issues of impaired control. Suggestions for future research directions are also offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the study of the differential role of alcohol expectancies, drinking refusal self-efficacy and coping resources in predicting alcohol consumption in the community. These factors were found to have differential effects to the frequency and volume of alcohol consumption. Drinking refusal efficacy was a salient factor to community drinking while coping and expectancies were associated with frequency drinking sessions by problem drinkers. The findings were discussed based on the different patterns of cognitive variables that govern the decision to drink and the amount consumed in each drinking session.

This article discusses the normal use of drugs. People use drugs because they feel that they enjoy or otherwise benefit from some of the effects of use. This truism is often confused with the technical assertion that drugs are reinforcing, but enjoyment does not necessarily involve primary biological reinforcement mechanisms. Most drugs of concern do have specific, probably primary, effects, but even then the effects are often mixed and include effects and consequences that are not positive or reinforcing. The most popular drugs induce euphoria--they can make people feel happy and might be said to be reinforcing. These include alcohol, heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, cannabis, and ecstasy. Feeling happier may be what users seek, but drugs that can induce euphoria do not always successfully do so and sometimes the euphoric effects come with unpleasant effects of various kinds. Several widely used drugs, including alcohol, nicotine, opiates and cannabis, can lead to nausea and novice users must learn to deal with, habituate to or avoid it. Many drugs affect arousal, either causing drowsiness or over stimulation, in ways that seem like undesirable side effects in some contexts of use, if amongst the wanted effects in other contexts. Many other positive effects of drugs can also be re-described as negative effects, notably hallucinogenic and psychedelic effects. Some drugs commonly used by humans are readily used by animals and seem reinforcing in the behaviorist sense of making repeated use more likely. For others, including alcohol, special experimental conditions have to be engineered to get animals to self-administer the drug at all.

This paper introduces three articles focusing on clinical harm reduction [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]