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AimsStudies have shown association between common variants in the α6-β3 nicotinic receptor subunit gene cluster and nicotine dependence in European ancestry populations. We investigate whether this generalizes to African Americans, whether the association is specific to nicotine dependence and whether this region contains additional genetic contributors to nicotine dependence.DesignWe examined consistency of association across studies and race between the α6β3 nicotinic receptor subunit locus and nicotine, alcohol, marijuana and cocaine dependence in three independent studies.SettingUnited States of America.ParticipantsEuropean Americans and African Americans from three case-control studies of substance dependence.MeasurementsSubjects were evaluated using the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism. Nicotine dependence was determined using the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence.FindingsThe single nucleotide polymorphism rs13273442 was associated significantly with nicotine dependence across all three studies in both ancestry groups [odds ratio (OR) = 0.75, P = 5.8 × 10(-4) European Americans; OR = 0.80, P = 0.05 African Americans]. No other substance dependence was associated consistently with this variant in either group. Another SNP in the region, rs4952, remains modestly associated with nicotine dependence in the combined data after conditioning on rs13273442.ConclusionsThe common variant rs13273442 in the CHRNB3-CHNRA6 region is associated significantly with nicotine dependence in European Americans and African Americans across studies recruited for nicotine, alcohol and cocaine dependence. Although these data are modestly powered for other substances, our results provide no evidence that correlates of rs13273442 represent a general substance dependence liability. Additional variants probably account for some of the association of this region to nicotine dependence.

Background and Aims: In the United States, the availability of prescription opioids has decreased in recent years. Whether there have been corresponding changes in the likelihood of people with prescription opioid use disorder (POUD) to engage in illegal behaviors related to drug use remains unknown. We examined changes in prevalence of illegal behaviors between people with and without POUD over time, and how transactions for obtaining opioids have changed among people with POUD over time. Design Temporal trend analysis of repeated cross‐sectional data. Setting: United States household dwelling population from all 50 states and District of Columbia. Participants: Adult subsamples from the 2002–14 National Survey of Drug Use and Health (n = 5393 people with POUD; n = 486 768 people without POUD). Measurements Outcome variables were selected illegal behaviors and sources of opioids used non‐medically. POUD was defined using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, criteria. Time was treated as a continuous variable. The variable of interest for each illegal behavior analysis was the interaction between POUD diagnosis and time. Covariates included age, sex and race/ethnicity. Findings During the 13‐year period examined, the adjusted interaction odds ratio (AIOR) describing the change in association between POUD and selling illicit drugs increased by a factor of 2.41 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.56–3.71, P < 0.001]. Similar trends were noted for stealing (AIOR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.31–3.44, P = 0.002) and for life‐time history of arrest (AIOR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.06–2.19, P = 0.021). People with POUD became less likely to receive opioids for free from friends and family [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.25–0.71, P = 0.001] and more likely to buy them from friends and family (AOR = 3.29, 95% CI = 1.76–6.13, P < 0.001) from 2005 to 2014. Conclusions: In the United States, against a backdrop of a decreasing prescription opioid supply, rates of some crimes potentially related to drug use increased among people with prescription opioid use disorder compared with those without prescription opioid use disorder from 2002 to 2014. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]