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Kiwifruit vine artificial pollination was firstly studied in New Zealand and in Italy in the 80s in order to optimize the kiwifruit fruit set and production. Nowadays it is a crucial technique useful to increase fruit quality and size. However, artificial pollination efficiency depends on the timing of application and the pollination system. The main objective of this study is to decipher the relation between the floral stage and the pollination technique. Many parameters were analyzed in different environments in Italy for many years, such as pollen quality (germinability, humidity, conservation), pollination system (dry or liquid) and flowering stage. The petals fall and full bloom-early petal fall stages result in the best moments for dry and liquid pollination respectively. The dry blower pollination system gave the best results because, at the end of flowering, the pistil exudate is at its maximum and a larger number of ovaries are receptive with respect to the liquid pollination at full bloom. This observation leads to the definition of a new model crop fruit set that could be applied in other anemophilous pollinated tree such as olive tree, hazelnut, pistachio.

Studying the hazel flowering was carried out in agro-ecological conditions of the Banja Luka in the period from December to March during 2010/2011 and 2011/2012. The study was conducted on 13 hazel cultivars in two orchards. In the first orchard, the following four cultivars were observed: ‘Tankoljuskasti’, ‘Multiflora’, ‘Merveille de Bollwiller’and ‘Tonda Gentile Romana’, whilst the second orchard included the following: ‘Hall’s Giant’, ‘Gustav’s Zellernuss’, ‘Istrian Round’, ‘Avellana’, ‘Romai’, ‘Apolda’, ‘Ludolph’s Zellernuss’, ‘Imperiale de Trebizonde’and ‘Jean’s’. Phenological observations of the development of flowering phenophase with the aforementioned cultivars were monitored every three days in both years. In 2010/2011 the blooming of male and female inflorescence of the observed hazel cultivars lasted from late December to mid-March in total. The presence and pollen germination was proven to be a limiting factor for a successful pollination and fruit set in 2011. Namely, the pollen of cultivars: ‘Hall’s Giant’, ‘Istrian Round’, ‘Ludolph’s Zellernuss’, ‘Avellana’, ‘Imperiale de Trebizonde’ and ‘Romai’ did not germinate, and with ‘Gustav’s Zellernuss’, pollen germination was very low (7,22%). In ‘Apolda’, ‘Jean’s’, ‘Merveille de Bollwiller’, ‘Tonda Gentile Romana’, ‘Multiflora’ and ‘Tankoljuskasti’ pollen germination ranged between 28,57-81,69%. In 2011/2012 the flowering of male and female inflorescence of the observed hazel cultivars started 30 to 45 days later than the previous year i.e., female inflorescence of all the observed cultivars bloomed in early and mid-March, except in ‘Tankoljuskasti’, in which female inflorescence bloomed in late January and early February. Male inflorescence of ‘Tankoljuskasti’, ‘Hall’s Giant’ and ‘Gustav’s Zellernuss’ bloomed in the second half of January and early February, and in all other cultivars in mid-March. Pollen germination in 2012 proved to be a limiting factor for ‘Apolda’ and ‘Romai’, as their pollen did not germinate, as well as for ‘Hall’s Giant’ and ‘Jean’s’ where pollen germination was below 5%. For other cultivars, pollen germination was very good and ranged from 37,24 (‘Merveille de Bollwiller’) to 73,97% (‘Multiflora’). Based on the analysis of dynamics of blooming and pollen germination of 13 hazel cultivars in two years, the monitoring of pollen germination and strategy of artificial pollination must be adopted as a basic approach to control hazel fertility in the conditions of the Banja Luka region.

The genus Ficus comprises over 750 species that are predominantly found in the tropics and sub-tropics. All Ficus species are characterized by an enclosed spherical inflorescence (syconium) with a minute opening (ostiole). Each syconium also called fig contains along the inner side hundreds of unisexual flower. Figs are pollinated by wasps that belong to Hymenoptera, family Agaonidae. Pollination is unique because the wasp has to enter into the fig through the ostiole to access the flowers and often dies inside the fig after carrying out pollination as well as oviposition. Seed development can occur only if this specialized wasp exists and offspring of pollinator wasp cannot develop without the fig. Figs are monoecious or gynodioecious based on seed and wasp production within the fig. In monoecious species, seeds and wasps develop within the same fig, in gynodioecious species separate figs produce seeds and pollinator wasps. In order to pollinate, the fig wasp locates the fig using specific volatiles emitted by the fig and pollinates the fig either in an active or a passive manner. Edible figs have been cultivated since prehistoric times. Many parthenocarpic varieties have evolved during the long history of interaction of fig with man. The edible figs produce seeds without the involvement of pollinator wasp and its propagation is completely dependent on stem cutting. New cultivars and hybrids of edible figs have also been created by artificial pollination with different pollen donors. This overview will present information on pollination in Ficus and edible fig culture.

‘Soreli’ (meaning “sun” in the local language) is a selection of tetraploid Actinidia chinensis developed at the University of Udine and released in 2008. The main characteristics are: heavy cropping, large fruit size, and yellow flesh color. We report in the present paper the results of six years of observation (2007-2012) in three different locations from North to Southern-Italy. Budburst occurred 4-17 days before ‘Hayward’, with the earlier bud burst recorded in the South. Flowering time occurred almost constantly two weeks before ‘Hayward’, but in a range of dates encompassing up to three weeks in the different seasons and locations. Flowers were usually single. Fruit weight at harvest ranged from 85 to 147 g, according to location and season with the lowest values recorded in absence of artificial pollination. Orchards of the trial were not sprayed with plant growth regulators (PGR). Harvesting date, fixed by the protocol when fruit reached 8.0°Brix, ranged up to 25 days, with the extreme dates represented by September 23 and October 18. Soluble solid content averaged from 12.5 to 15.7, with erratic influence of location and season. Fruit quality, evaluated through a taste panel, was compared with two controls, ‘Hayward’ (green) and ‘Jintao’ (yellow) grown together with ‘Soreli’ in a single location. Authors discuss the marketing strategies that could be developed following the data on cropping and fruit quality of this new kiwifruit cultivar as observed in locations that greatly differed from each other for winter chilling unit accumulation, degree days, temperatures, rainfall and other climatic and soil parameters.

Commercial production of the kiwiberry (Actinidia arguta) is relatively new in northern and western Europe. When introducing the kiwiberry to a region where fruit growers have no experience with Actinidia, many challenges have had to be overcome. For instance, the profile of the growers willing to invest in this crop is very diverse, the geographic regions have their specific climatic and soil conditions and, clearly, cultivation of the kiwiberry has very specific requirements. Therefore, proper technical advice is extremely important to obtain productive orchards. Although A. arguta is quite hardy, spring frosts are a major concern and a strongly limiting factor for yields in Europe. In recent initiatives, different cultivars with a commercial potential are being screened for frost tolerance, but currently, frost protection using sprinkler irrigation is in many cases the only and most effective system. However, growing kiwiberries in greenhouses appears to be a valuable and commercially viable alternative in The Netherlands and Belgium. The combination of a recommended fertilizer program and irrigation management, artificial pollination methods, appropriate pruning and good training has proven to be a very successful approach with yields as high as 18 t/ha five years after planting. Apart from establishing productive orchards, the successful introduction of kiwiberry as a novel fruit onto the market involves other important issues as well. Since the price of new fruits is usually rather high, growers have to realize that a product quality is essential for long-term success. Therefore, much attention must be paid to efficient grading and stringent quality control.

Chile is the largest hazelnut producer in the Southern Hemisphere. Hazelnut cultivation covers about 13,000 ha between the region of Maule, central zone (Talca, Linares, Chillan) and the south zone of the country including the regions AraucanA­a, Los RA­os and Los Lagos (Temuco, Valdivia and Puerto Varas with an additional 800-1000 ha being added yearly) (Fig. 1). Historically this species was introduced in South Chile by European emigrants, in particular Germans, Italians, and Swiss, principally in Araucania, Los Rios and Los Lagos regions. The hazelnut industry in Chile is very young (Ellena, 2010). The first important commercial orchards were established in 1990 (100 ha) in the Curico and Talca areas with the introduction of a great amount of plants of ‘Tonda Gentile delle Langhe’, ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ and their pollinizers from Italy. Hazelnut plantings in Chile have increased strongly in the last 5 years and the crop is spreading, especially in AraucanA­a region (3000 ha). This trend is accompanied by an important demand for nursery plant material and by innovative cultivation techniques. However Chilean production of European hazelnut is based mainly on two cultivars: ‘Chilean Barcelona’ a similar material to ‘Oregon Barcelona’ and ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ most appreciated Italian cultivars with round nut (Ellena et al., 2012). The first material is principally for in-shell market with a low percent kernel (39-40%) and the second for kernel market (industry process) with about 47% kernel and good kernel blanching. In general, these cultivars are productive and adapted to the environmental conditions of central and south Chile. In research trials conducted per the Research Center INIA-Carillanca and commercial orchards both cultivars have shown a great production potential. Concerning the pollination, there is a large variety of pollinizers being established with uncertainty about their genetic compatibility. However, in the last years important progress has been achieved employing correct pollinizer cultivars and with research about artificial pollination on hazelnut. In connection with the training system, the orchards were planted with multi-stemmed shrubs or multisystem bush and as a free single trunk (free vase), this last mainly for the ‘Barcelona’ cultivar, which shows also a high vigor compared to ‘Tonda di Giffoni’. Concerning the plant density, the orchards are planted with 460-500 tree/ha. In order to reduce the initial low cropping of young trees, the tendency to increase the plant density (667-800 trees/ha) has been proved to be positive. Recently, studies realized by the Center INIA-Carillanca in south Chile show preliminary positive results in this matter, increasing the yields. Actually this research Center has begun a selection program to develop rootstocks in order to reduce height of trees and improve vegetative growth and yield performance, and lower sucker emission. The suckering is another important problem to resolve in growing hazelnut increasing the management cost and increasing probability of disease such as the bacterium Xanthomonas arboricola p.v. corylina (Miller and Bollen, 1964). In recent years, a lot of research has been done by the INIA-Carillanca Center to improve the development and production of hazelnut orchards as: density plant, foliar fertilizer programs, soil management, irrigation, artificial pollination, pruning and pest management with integrated control (MIP). One of the principal problems in hazelnut orchards are Aegorhinus superciliosus (GuA©rin-MA©neville) (Curculionidae) distributed in Chile from Maule region until Los Lagos region and Aegorhinus nodipennis (Hope) (Curculionidae) distributed from Maule region (central Chile) even AysA©n region. The Chilean hazelnut production is about 4500-5000 t destined principally to Europe, the United States and a smaller quantity is exported to South America and low quantities are employed for domestic markets. Important progress has been achieved with regards to the organization of growers for the selling of nuts and the building of a Plant Processing Industry in Araucania region, Gorbea area with an important national export company of nuts fruit “Pacific Nuts”. The aim of this association is to improve the trade of Chilean hazelnuts and to guarantee prizes to growers associated.

Phalaenopsis is one of the important economic orchids in the world. To date, thousands of Phalaenopsis cultivars have been bred and commercialized. In order to introduce unique characteristics of the spur structure from the flower of Amesiella into Phalaenopsis germplasm, intergeneric hybridization between Phalaenopsis ‘Sogo Yukidian’ and Amesiella philippinensis were conducted by artificial pollination. Four months later, the capsules were harvested. The immature embryos with placenta were manipulated and placed into germination medium. Approximately 300 intergeneric embryos of each capsule were rescued. After subculturing for one year in the culture medium and two-week hardiness, intergeneric hybrids were cultivated in greenhouse. After one and half years of cultivation, the first flower of the hybrid bloomed. The new hybrid was named as Amenopsis ‘Kaohsiung Magic’ and registered at the Royal Horticulture Society. Leaf morphology of the hybrid is lanceolate, coriaceus and dark green. The hybrid bears greenish-white flower with black markings on the lip and a short spur at the back of the lip.

Giant lily (Cardiocrinum giganteum) is a perennial bulbiferous herb of Liliaceae and an endemic species in the eastern Himalayan region, which has become one of the new flower crops because of its high ornamental value. The floral biology and breeding characteristics of C. giganteum were studied by monitoring floral characteristics, duration of flowering, phenology, flowering behavior, outcrossing index (OCI), pollen-ovule ratio (P/O), pollen viability, stigma receptivity and fruit sets under a series pollination treatment. The result showed that flowering occurred from early May to early July and the mean duration of flowering was 16 days per inflorescence containing 6 to 19 flowers, and every flower has a life span of 7-11 days. The flowers were bisexual, with dichogamy and spatial separation. However, some anthers of a small number of flowers were longer than or equal to the stigma, which were suitable for self-pollination. The flowers were protandrous; the pistils matured in the day of floral opening. The pollen viability peaked around 75% after the pollen dispersed in 2 days, and its stigma had peroxidase activity from the third day after the anther loosing pollen until the end of flowering. The fruit setting rate of natural pollination was as high as 95%, that of artificial self-pollination 57.5%, and that of artificial xenogamy was as high as 100%, suggesting that C. giganteum is self-compatible. According to the artificial pollination experiments, OCI and P/O tests, the breeding system of C. giganteum was outcross and self-compatible, which needed pollinators.

Guava is one of the most important fruits in a large number of countries of the world. In most countries where guava is important, genetic studies and breeding is done in different degrees and ways. Germplasm conservation and studies are practiced in places such as Colombia, Venezuela, USA, Malaysia and Nigeria. In these and other cases, objectives are to collect, introduce, characterize and select guava genotypes with defined and appropriate characteristics to production. Artificial pollination is mostly used. Conversely, countries such as Israel, Thailand, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, Pakistan and India, especially the latter one, present active and productive guava breeding programs. On the other hand, this fact resulted in a very high variability in seedling populations from which promising genotypes have been selected, such as 'Paluma', the main Brazilian cultivar and many others, like 'Kumagai', 'Pedro Sato', 'Cortibel'. In India there are more than 150 cultivars, but only a few with commercial importance such as 'Allahabad Safeda', 'L-49' ('Sardar'), 'Hisar Surkha', 'Lucknow Safeda', 'Arka Amulya', which have been identified for commercial planting particularly in northern India, the main guava growing region. However, in the last 10-15 years crop improvement work carried out resulted in release of several superior selections and or hybrids, such as 'Safed Jam', 'Kohir Safeda' and 'Arka Amulya' in India, 'Seculo XXI' in Brazil, and others. Breeding programs also use techniques such as interspecific crosses and induced mutation, contributing to bring variability in different senses and characteristics. Molecular techniques and other new biotechnological tools are very helpful to study the extent of genetic variation among cultivars as well as to find out genetic markers for wilt resistance to improve efficiency in developing wilt resistant clones and rootstocks. Development studies still have to be done in aneuploidy breeding, development of autotetraploids and in vitro genetic manipulation of somatic cells.

The horticultural interest of self-compatible fruit tree cultivars depends on their ability to reach the optimal fruit set by self-pollination, thus making superfluous cross-pollination and related problems. In Apulia region (southern Italy) the olive cultivation is spread on about 370,000 hectares. ‘Coratina’ is the most popular olive cultivar in the central part of the region, where actually it is grown in solid blocks on 60,000 hectares and characterized by high and constant productivity. ‘Coratina’ is generally considered to be a self-compatible olive cultivar, but its biological behaviour is a vexed question in the scientific literature. In order to ascertain the real biological behaviour of ‘Coratina’, a 3-year study was carried out on 10 representative monovarietal olive groves scattered on the area of main diffusion. Data concerning fruit set following open-pollination and unassisted self-pollination have been gathered. Among years and sites, an optimal fruit set (3.5%) was obtained from open-pollinated branches and a scarce fruit set (0.02%) from self-pollinated ones. These results assert the self-incompatibility of ‘Coratina’ and show its capacity to provide optimal production levels thanks to the abundant and natural sources of flying compatible pollen from neighbouring districts where different cultivars are spread.

Storage at cryogenic temperatures is considered a successful method of retaining pollen viability in many plant species. Storage at ­20°C has also been reported as a convenient method of pollen preservation with satisfactory results. In this study, the effects of two storage methods on tomato pollen viability and fecundity have been compared. Tomato pollen was stored at ­20°C using CaCl2 as desiccant and at ­196°C after modification of its moisture content to 6.5-7% (wet weight basis). After 6, 8, 10, 12 and 18 months, in vitro pollen germination and pollen tube growth were tested following rehydration for 3 h at 100% R.H. and 15°C, and incubation for 6 h on semisolid substrate (1% agar, 12% sucrose and 50 mg L-1 H3BO3). Respiration activity was measured in pollen stored at both ­20 and ­196°C for 6 and 12 months in liquid substrate (12% sucrose and 50 mg L-1 H3BO3). Fecundity of stored pollen was assessed by artificial pollinations conducted at the same time. Pollen stored at ­20°C retained high in vitro germination for 10 months. However, after only 6 months at ­20°C, pollen tube length and respiration activity declined with a negative impact on pollen fecundity, as indicated by the reduced number of seeds per fruit in fruits obtained by artificial pollination. Pollen germination ability significantly declined after 12 months. On the other hand, pollen stored at ­196°C for 18 months exhibited similar in vitro germination, pollen tube growth and respiration activity to those recorded for fresh pollen. Furthermore, artificial pollination with cryogenically stored pollen resulted in similar fruit set and number of seeds per fruit to those observed after artificial pollination with fresh pollen.

This study aimed to evaluate harvest maturity of the sugar apple fruits. The experiment was carried out in a commercial orchard under irrigation system condition, in Nova Porteirinha County, MG - Brazil. The randomized block design was used with four replicates, sixteen harvest times and five fruit per plot. The first harvest was accomplished at fifteen days after artificial pollination (DAP) then every seven days. The following characteristics were evaluated: diameter, length, fruit mass, fruit dry matter, pulp fresh matter, fruit firmness, total soluble solids and ripening time. All evaluated variables were subjected to the sigmoid growth pattern, and the logistical model was adjusted. At 30 and 60 days after artificial pollination, the fruits showed the highest growth rates, whereas the highest dry matter accumulation was exactly verified at fifty days after artificial pollination. Concerning to the increment fruit weight curve, the increases were observed up to 78 th DAP, but getting establishment from this date on, and the fruits were gathered at 108 DAP on average. From 104 DAP, the sugar apple fruits showed good features to be consumed in nature, which ripped after 6 days after harvesting; whereas the fruits reaped at 108 DAP showed only three-days shelf life. Although harvesting at 104 DAP doubled the shelf life time, the fruit pulp weight showed an increase around 50 g when reaped at 108 DAP, which approximately represents 7% the fruit pulp. Those results point out the management practices such as fertilization and irrigation must be prioritized during the period from 40 to 80 days after pollination, on northern Minas Gerais conditions.

The effect of pollen of three genotypes ('Serr', 'Z 60 ' and 'Z 30 ') and control (open pollinated) was compared on nut development and quality of three genotypes ('Z 63 ', 'Chandler', 'Hartley'). Male flowers were removed on selected female branches and both male and female flowers were covered by double cheese cloth to reduced pollen contamination. Artificial pollination was done when the stigma of female flowers were pinkish in colour and fully expanded. After harvest, 'nut and kernel weight', 'length', 'diameter' and 'shell thickness' were determined. The results showed that nut and kernel diameter as well as shell thickness were significantly affected by pollen sources. Pollen of 'Z 30 ' and `Z 60 ' significantly decreased nut diameter and nut weight. 'Z 30 ', 'Z 60 ' and 'Serr' pollen sources decreased shell thickness more than open pollination.

Prunus necrotic ring spot virus (PNRSV) transmission takes place in nature during flowering and pollination. It is thought to be transmitted through pollen and seeds although the exact mechanism is unknown. In a previous work, we demonstrated that in the case of nectarine, PNRSV is located inside the pollen grains, which would help to explain its vertical transmission in this tree. Experiments involving artificial pollination resulted in transmission percentages that varied from 100% in peach to 0% in cherry. In this work we study the vertical transmission of PNRSV by gametes in apricot in an attempt to understand to what extent they are involved in the high incidence of PNRSV in this crop. In order to obtain a preliminary indication about PNRSV location on the apricot pollen grains, we made dot-blot hybridisation. Unlike in nectarine, the results pointed to the presence of the virus outside as well as inside the apricot pollen grains, results that are consistent with those of other authors. When in situ hybridisation experiments were carried out in flowers the virus was found in all organs, including its presence inside pollen grains. However, not all pollen grains contained in an anther were infected indicating an irregular distribution of the virus. We also studied the germination percentage of in vitro germinated pollen grains and found that PNRSV -infected pollen have a germination rate of only 27% while healthy pollen shows 64%.

Main points of using R. canus managment as pollinating agent in lucerne large scale seed production. Theory, experiences and the present-time situation.

In this experiment which was performed during 1995-97 autumn and spring period, in addition to Dorit, four other strawberry varieties such as Douglas, Oso Grande, Camarosa and Chandler were tried. In these varieties pollen production, quality of pollen, the quality characteristics (fruit weight, TSS, acidity, shape) of the berries were analysed. As the pollinating agent, in addition to bumblebees, honeybees were used. The results have shown that from the point of view of pollen viability, germination, production and homogeneity, Chandler was the most satisfactory and Douglas was the least satisfactory varieties. In all the varieties the yields were highest when both vectors (honeybee + bumblebee) were used together. Dorit was found as the highest yielding and Chandler was the lowest yielding varieties in the experiment.

This study was carried out to search the possibilities of propagating plants from ovules and embryos of seedless x seedless table grape crosses. Ovules of 3A/261x Bans and 15/A-61x Bans crosses cultured 42 and 52 days after artificial pollination. E20A and ER + WP medias were used in culturing of ovules and embryos. It had been observed that there was no difference between the periods of time in according to viable embryo number for two crosses in E20A media. In ER media, only 3/A-261x Bans ovules which had been taken 52 days after pollination gave higher viable embryo number than 42 days. The germination rate of viable embryos of 3/A-261x Baris combination was at least in the 42 th day + ER treatment. These ratios were 31.52% in ER media and 80.21% in E20A media for ovules of 15/A-61 x Bans that had been cultured in 52 th day. The treatment of 52 th day + E20A media gave the highest number (21.77%) of seedlings through ovules of 15/A-61x Bans combination. This number was lower in both two periods and two medias for 3/A-261x Barn ovules.