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Space Resource Utilization could reduce the mass, cost, and risks of future space activities. The many nonlinear and compounding effects mean that seemingly insignificant concept of operations choices can invalidate the conclusions of sophisticated analyses. Here we successively relax self-imposed constraints in a recent publication to demonstrate that the proximity of a market and the benefits of aerobraking cannot be omitted.

In November 1990, the Commission published its intentions on reregulations of satellite communications in the European Community in its Green Paper on the Development of the Common Market for Satellite Services and Equipment . After the appropriate consultations the Council of Ministers endorsed these intentions in a Resolution, and asked the Commission to develop and present the necessary draft Community law. These draft Directives are scheduled for publication and adoption by the Commission during mid-1992 and are expected to change the face of satellite communications in the Community dramatically. This paper discusses some of the anticipated measures and the results to-date.

Radiation exposure estimates for crew members on the surface of Mars may vary widely because of the large variations in terrain altitude. The maximum altitude difference between the highest (top of Olympus Mons) and the lowest (bottom of the Hellas impact basin) points on Mars is about 32 km. In this work estimates of radiation exposures as a function of altitude, from the Hellas impact basin to Olympus Mons, are made for a solar particle event proton radiation environment comparable to the Carrington event of 1859. We assume that the proton energy distribution for this Carrington-type event is similar to that of the Band Function fit of the February 1956 event. In this work we use the HZETRN 2010 radiation transport code, originally developed at NASA Langley Research Center, and the Computerized Anatomical Male and Female human geometry models to estimate exposures for aluminum shield areal densities similar to those provided by a spacesuit, surface lander, and permanent habitat as a function of altitude in the Mars atmosphere. Comparisons of the predicted organ exposures with current NASA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) are made.

In May 2007, what was then the Space Life Sciences Directorate published the 2007 Space Life Sciences Strategy for Human Space Exploration, which resulted in the development and implementation of new business models and significant advances in external collaboration over the next five years. The strategy was updated on the basis of these accomplishments and reissued as the NASA Human Health and Performance Strategy in 2012, and continues to drive new approaches to innovation for the directorate. This short paper describes the open innovation successes and collaborative projects developed over this timeframe, including the efforts of the NASA Human Health and Performance Center (NHHPC), which was established to advance human health and performance innovations for spaceflight and societal benefit via collaboration in new markets.

The study addresses the effectiveness of using ion exchange substrates (IES) to optimize mineral nutrition of plants grown in the nutrient solutions containing oxidized human wastes for application in bio-technical life support systems. The study shows that the addition of IES to the root-inhabited substrate is favorable for the growth of wheat vegetative organs but causes a decrease in the grain yield. By contrast, the addition of IES to the nutrient solution does not influence the growth of vegetative organs but favors normal development of wheat reproductive organs. Thus, to choose the proper method of adjusting the solution with IES, one should take into account specific parameters of plant growth and development and the possibility of multiple recycling of IES based on the liquid products of mineralization of human wastes.

The recycle of the wastewater is one of the main factors for realizing a higher closure degree of bioregenerative life support system (BLSS), among which the treatment and recovery of the crew's urine are the most difficult and critical issues. Researchers have paid a lot of attention on the desalination of urine in the previous studies, however, if the nitrogen could be recycled simultaneously while desalting the urine, the substance circulation and the closure of BLSS could be improved more significantly. In this study, two-step method was conducted to treat the urine and recycle the water and nitrogen. The urine was hydrolyzed firstly, and then the water vapor and ammonia gas were cooled and collected by using reduced pressure distillation in alkaline condition. High temperature acidification method (HTAM) and immobilized urease catalysis method (IUCM) were investigated in the hydrolysis pretreatment of urine. The treatment conditions of both methods were optimized and the hydrolysis efficiencies were compared. The results showed that the optimum treatment temperature and acidity for HTAM were 99 °C and [H + ] =2 mol/L when the reaction time was 7 h, and the maximum nitrogen recycle efficiency was 39.7%. While, the optimum treatment conditions for IUCM were 60 °C, pH=7.0 and 40 min, and the maximum nitrogen recycle efficiency could reach 52.2%. Therefore, compared with HTAM, IUCM has higher hydrolysis efficiency with milder reaction temperature and pH and shorter reaction time which means it could adapt to the heavy urine treatment workload in BLSS. This investigation has provided a promising method to recycle the urine in BLSS, and all the results will contribute to the further BLSS experiments conducted in the stage II of the “Lunar Palace 1”.

The development of new system capabilities typically depends upon the prior success of advanced technology research and development efforts. These systems developments inevitably face the three major challenges of any project: performance, schedule and budget. Done well, advanced technology programs can substantially reduce the uncertainty in all three of these dimensions of project management. Done poorly, or not at all, and new system developments suffer from cost overruns, schedule delays and the steady erosion of initial performance objectives. It is often critical for senior management to be able to determine which of these two paths is more likely—and to respond accordingly. The challenge for system and technology managers is to be able to make clear, well-documented assessments of technology readiness and risks, and to do so at key points in the life cycle of the program. In the mid 1970s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) introduced the concept of “technology readiness levels” (TRLs) as a discipline-independent, programmatic figure of merit (FOM) to allow more effective assessment of, and communication regarding the maturity of new technologies. In 1995, the TRL scale was further strengthened by the articulation of the first definitions of each level, along with examples (J. Mankins, Technology readiness levels, A White Paper, NASA, Washington, DC, 1995. [1] ). Since then, TRLs have been embraced by the U.S. Congress’ General Accountability Office (GAO), adopted by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), and are being considered for use by numerous other organizations. Overall, the TRLs have proved to be highly effective in communicating the status of new technologies among sometimes diverse organizations. This paper will review the concept of “technology readiness assessments”, and provide a retrospective on the history of “TRLs” during the past 30 years. The paper will conclude with observations concerning prospective future directions for the important discipline of technology readiness assessments.

Cooperation between the EU and ESA in the development of Galileo marked a first decisive step in collaboration between these two communities. Current work on space programmes beyond Galileo, such as GMES, shows the need for clear institutional solutions and responses to what should become more than a mere framework space agenda. If Europe is to fulfil its space ambitions and adopt a common approach, institutional competences and abilities require clarification and formulation. The Commission's White Paper lays out an action plan designed to support space technology and activities within the EU. The EU is seen as providing the most appropriate political forum alongside optimal investment conditions for the space industry, developing the social, economic and commercial potential. If Europe wants to pursue its space ambitions effectively, institutional challenges will have to be tackled sooner rather than later. Whilst recognising current limitations on the EU's competence to legislate specifically on space matters, the White Paper seeks to address primary space issues and looks towards a future European governmental agenda that includes space activities. This paper analyses the current legal framework governing the relationship between the respective inter-governmental institutional agency (The European Space Agency) and the specific supranational community of the European Union. It argues that ad hoc models of support for specific programmes, such as the establishment of the Joint Undertaking for the Galileo programme, serve only as an interim step towards realigning competence within the institutional landscape to facilitate and benefit Europe's future activities in space. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Cooperation between the EU and ESA in the development of Galileo marked a first decisive step in collaboration between these two communities. Current work on space programmes beyond Galileo, such as GMES, shows the need for clear institutional solutions and responses to what should become more than a mere framework space agenda. If Europe is to fulfil its space ambitions and adopt a common approach, institutional competences and abilities require clarification and formulation. The Commission's White Paper lays out an action plan designed to support space technology and activities within the EU. The EU is seen as providing the most appropriate political forum alongside optimal investment conditions for the space industry, developing the social, economic and commercial potential. If Europe wants to pursue its space ambitions effectively, institutional challenges will have to be tackled sooner rather than later. Whilst recognising current limitations on the EU's competence to legislate specifically on space matters, the White Paper seeks to address primary space issues and looks towards a future European governmental agenda that includes space activities. This paper analyses the current legal framework governing the relationship between the respective inter-governmental institutional agency (The European Space Agency) and the specific supranational community of the European Union. It argues that ad hoc models of support for specific programmes, such as the establishment of the Joint Undertaking for the Galileo programme, serve only as an interim step towards realigning competence within the institutional landscape to facilitate and benefit Europe's future activities in space.

The impact of confirmation of life outside the small ecosphere we call Earth will be profound on the terran population as a whole. The “Declaration Of Principles Concerning Activities Following The Detection Of Extraterrestrial Intelligence” and the IAA Position Paper “A Decision Process for Examining the Possibility of Sending Communications To Extraterrestrial Civilizations: A Proposal” provide a firm basis for the development of a new body of space law. It is important that space law design and prepare for implementation of a protocol to guide the nations of the world concerning the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), through the advice and cooperation of scientists, jurisprudential, philosophical, political and sociological scholars. Through the IAA, the IISL, the United Nations and other organizations, formal documentation should be drafted to encode the Declaration of Principles and IAA Position Paper referred to above. In this way, a body of metalaw can be developed to enable human communication with non-terrestrial life. This paper discusses the philosophical and sociological parameters of terran understanding of our place in the universe which will dramatically impact jurisprudential thought and action in light of the realization of the infinitesimally small niche that humankind occupies. A discussion of these interdisciplinary concerns will be necessary to realize a metalegal approach to interstellar communications and relations.

A major restructuring of the satellite communications market in the European Community has been set in motion with the advent of the European Commission's Satellite Green Paper. The first detailed proposals for Community legislation however, address mainly ground segment issues, such as type-approval of satellite equipment and the mutual recognition of licences. Space segment issues remain an important area for further reflection. This paper presents some background to these space segment issues within the context of the Community satellite communications policy.

The paper considers problems of biosynthesis of higher plants' biomass and “biological incineration” of plant wastes in a working physical model of biological LSS. The plant wastes are “biologically incinerated” in a special heterotrophic block involving Californian worms, mushrooms and straw. The block processes plant wastes (straw, haulms) to produce soil-like substrate (SLS) on which plants (wheat, radish) are grown. Gas exchange in such a system consists of respiratory gas exchange of SLS and photosynthesis and respiration of plants. Specifics of gas exchange dynamics of high plants — SLS complex has been considered. Relationship between such a gas exchange and PAR irradiance and age of plants has been established. Nitrogen and iron were found to the first to limit plants' growth on SLS when process conditions are deranged. The SLS microflora has been found to have different kinds of ammonifying and denitrifying bacteria which is indicative of intensive transformation of nitrogen-containing compounds. The number of physiological groups of microorganisms in SLS was, on the whole, steady. As a result, organic substances — products of exchange of plants and microorganisms were not accumulated in the medium, but mineralized and assimilated by the biocenosis. Experiments showed that the developed model of a man-made ecosystem realized complete utilization of plant wastes and involved them into the intrasystem turnover.

The return to the Moon is no longer a question of yes or no, but a question of when and how. The first landing of a human being on the lunar surface in 1969 was a purely national effort of the U.S.A. Building a lunar base and operating it in the next century is rather a task for all nations of this planet, even if one nation could do it alone. However, there are several alternatives to carry out such a program and these will and should be debated during the next years on an urgent basis. To do this, one has to take into account not only the historical accomplishments and the present trends of cooperation in space programs, but also recent geopolitical developments as well as the frame of reference established by international law. The case for an International Lunar Base (ILB) has been presented to the International Academy of Astronautics on 11 October 1987 by the IAA Ad Hoc Committee “Return-to-the-Moon”. This draft of a position paper was subsequently published in Acta Astronautica Vol. 17, No. 5, (pp. 463–489) with the request of public debate particularly by the members of the Academy. Some 80 Academicians responded to this invitation by the President of the Academy and voiced their opinions on the questions and issues raised by this draft of a position paper. This led to a refinement of the arguments and assumptions made and it is now possible to prepare an improved position paper proposing concrete steps which may lead to an ILB. An issue of this proportion must start with a discussion of goals and objectives to be arranged in some kind of a ranked order. It also has to take note of the limitations existing at any time by the availability of suitable space transportation systems. These will determine the acquisition date and rate of growth of a lunar base. The logistics system will also greatly influence the base characteristics and layout. The availability of heavy lift launch vehicles would simplify the task and allow to concentrate the construction activities for a lunar base on Earth where it is done the cheapest way. Extraterrestrial activities by men should be kept as small as possible to keep costs down. The organizational alternatives have an equally wide span and many options have been considered already. The most prominent ones are described and the results of a ranking exercise are presented. Finally, a phased project plan as seen from today's viewpoint is proposed beginning in 1992 with the activation of a “Lunar Base Planning Office” to be followed by an “International Lunar Development Agency” with the goal of establishing the first element of a permanent lunar base in the second half of the first decade of the 21st century.

A strain of microalgae (Anabaena siamensis) had been cultured in a miniaturized bioreactor during a retrievable satellite flight for 15 days. By means of remote sensing equipment installed in the satellite, we gained the growth curve of microalgae population in space every day in real time. The curve indicated that the growth of microalgae in space was slower than the control on ground. Inoculation of the retrieved microalgae culture showed that the growth rate was distinctively higher than ground control. But after several generations, both cultures indicated similar growth rates. Those data showed that algae, can adapt to space environment easily which may be valuable for designing more complex bioreactor and controlled ecological life support system in future experiment. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This paper describes an accurate model of the Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) of the Thermal Analysis Support and Environment Characterization Laboratory (TASEC-Lab), a university experiment developed for using in high-altitude balloon missions to measure and analyze the convection heat transfer. A Li-ion battery and two high efficient DC–DC converters have been characterized through laboratory tests and fitting to the experimental results. The developed mathematical models described in this paper are used to carry out accurate EPS simulations and are validated by comparison with the experimental data.

An active debris removal method using a laser is a promising technology for its advantage in contactless operations. This paper deals with the attitude control of an uncooperative target by a laser, which is an important phase before deorbiting. The difficulty of attitude control by the laser stems from the torque directional constraint because the laser generates thrust along the normal vector of the irradiated face irrespective of the irradiating direction. Thus, the control torque along the normal vector cannot be generated, which makes the attitude control with the laser torque challenging. To tackle this problem, this paper first designs a reference controller that assumes arbitrary control torques are available. Then, a method for determining the irradiating point is proposed so that the difference between the reference torque and the actual one is minimized. Although the proposed controller does not guarantee theoretical convergence to the desired attitude, the effectiveness of the proposed controller is numerically verified for a box-type object. Furthermore, the robustness to the uncertainties of thrust magnitude and direction is also examined by Monte Carlo simulations.

In this paper, a geometrical investigation of the star sensor image is performed under dynamic conditions where the angular velocity effects are non-negligible. It is shown that, when the spacecraft is rotating, the streaks left by the stars’ signal onto the star sensor detector belong to portions of conic sections which features depend on the angles between the instantaneous rotation axis, the sensor line of sight and the stars’ direction. The geometrical properties discussed in the first part of the paper can be used to develop new numerical methods for the evaluation of the angular velocity. Hence, the chord method is proposed and discussed. This approach needs at least two stars in two successive images and, despite its simplicity, is quite effective to get a preliminary estimation of the spacecraft angular velocity in terms of direction and magnitude. Using the stars’ centroids from two successive images, the chord method evaluates the angular velocity direction as the intersection of the normals to the streaks. The proposed method is firstly presented by means of simple examples using some reference geometries, and then it is applied to real scenarios by using a high fidelity star sensor simulator. The pre-processing and processing of simulated images are discussed, presenting the geometrical techniques used to cluster the streaks and compute the centroids. Results are presented and discussed, validating the reported theoretical speculations.

Spacecraft in low-Earth orbit are exposed to environmental threats which can lead to material degradation and component failures. The presence of atomic oxygen and collisions from orbital debris have detrimental effects on the structures, thus affecting their performance. Cranfield University has developed a family of drag augmentation systems (DAS), for end-of-life de-orbit of satellites, addressing the space debris challenge and ensuring that satellites operate responsibly and sustainably. Deorbit devices are stowed on-orbit for the duration of the mission lifetime and, once deployed, the devices must withstand this harsh low-Earth environment until re-entry; a process which can take several years. The DAS’ deployable aluminised Kapton sails are particularly susceptible to undercutting by atomic oxygen. In preparation for commercialising the DAS, Cranfield University and Belstead Research Ltd. have submitted several joint proposals to better understand the degradation process of the drag sail materials and to qualify the materials for the specific application of drag sails in low Earth Orbit (LEO). This paper will outline the proposals and the expected benefits from the projects. Additionally, collisions with debris could accelerate the degradation of the system and generate additional debris. This paper will discuss a future ESABASE2 risk assessment study, aiming to quantifying the probability of collisions between the deployed drag sail and orbital debris. The atmospheric models required to simulate the aforementioned risks are complex and often fail to accurately predict performance or degradation observed in the space environment. A previous UKSA Pathfinder project highlighted this issue when different atmospheric models with varying levels of solar activity yielded drastically different re-entry times. Since Cranfield University has two deployed drag sails in orbit, previous de-orbit analysis performed using STELA and DRAMA will be updated and the simulations will be compared to actual data. This paper will conclude in a summation of the different on-going research projects at Cranfield University related to commercialising the DAS family. This research will benefit the wider space community by expanding the understanding of the effects of long-term exposure on certain materials, as well as improving the validity of future low Earth atmospheric models.

The detection and observation of space debris in Low Earth Orbit is generally carried out through the use of ground based radars and telescopes. These instruments allow for a precise reconstruction of the space debris trajectories, and therefore represent a key asset for planning avoidance maneuvers when threats of collisions are predicted. The recent deployment of mega-constellations, with the consequent increase of the number of satellites, imposes new challenges in terms of simultaneous tracking capability and readiness of the current space situational awareness systems. This adds to the current need to track small and dull objects to further mitigate the probability of triggering cascade collisions. However, ground based observations are limited due to their intrinsic sensibility to atmospheric refraction, their diurnal inoperability and their dependence on meteorological hazards. This paper proposes to study the feasibility and the benefits of a potential deployment of a constellation of CubeSats in Low Earth Orbit, to acquire optical observations of space debris with enhanced accuracy, as part of the ORCA mission: Orbit Refinement for Collision Avoidance. Here, the focus is on the optical design of the payload instrument to be integrated onboard of the orbiting platforms. The study trades-off the current state-of-art of optical detection technologies, by assessing their performance against a set of specific requirements: (a) the minimization of the uncertainty associated to the image resolution; (b) a field of view that maximizes the extent of the monitored area; (c) an optimal exposure time to avoid under or overexposure of the image; (d) minimization of the effects of light diffraction and above all, (e) the maximization of the signal to noise ratio to detect the smallest and dullest objects possible. Several configurations of optical systems are then chosen as suitable for the ORCA constellation, also considering the system design implications of its integration into a CubeSat, such as size requirements. Commercial Off-The-Shelf hardware are explored and performances of the optical system are evaluated through numerical simulations in order to estimate the detectable sizes of space debris while taking into account their potential distances from the sensor. This paper concludes with estimates of the impact of the ORCA mission on space situational awareness for decades to come.

Exploring farther into our solar system for planetary exploration will require the human crews to reside in their space transfer habitats for a long period of time. These explorers will also face isolation, owing to the sheer physical distance from the Earth, which may eventually affect their health and well-being. Furthermore, looking at a trip to Mars, astronauts may need to wait for as long as 40 min before receiving updated round communications from Earth, due to the time it takes for the signal to travel the separation distance at the speed of light. Thus, when it comes to long-duration crewed space missions, communication and the feeling of connection with their loved ones—friends and family—on Earth is crucial for the astronauts' well-being. In this context, exploring a new communication approach for long-duration spaceflight seems necessary for our missions to Mars. This paper attempts to introduce a new way of decoupled communication that enables astronauts to connect with their feelings towards their loved ones on Earth via embedded interactions, focusing on the idea of “qualitative contact”. The idea of qualitative contact was inspired by one of our previous studies on the concept of “qualitative interface” in relation to HCI (Human-Computer Interaction), then extended to our case study for human-object interactions. Much of how we construct meaning in the real world tends to be qualitative rather than quantitative. Yet quantification has become a default method for displaying, presenting and communicating information. In this paper, we explore beyond the idea of ordinary distance communication and information exchange during deep space exploration in particular during long-duration interplanetary spaceflight. We introduce how human explorers in a space transfer habitat can qualitatively contact their loved ones on Earth during their long-duration space missions. We discuss our design processes, which includes the study of human-centredness, communication barriers, the ideation process, and prototype development with a boundary-object based demonstration. We believe that our communication method or tool can stimulate ideas for space habitat designs beyond today's technological solutions for long-duration and long-distance space missions. By advancing the astronauts' physiological and psychological well-being, human explorers could venture to expand our civilisation deeper into the solar system. What are the ways to make astronauts feel connected with their family and friends back on Earth during their long-duration space missions? Here we share the idea of qualitative contact through a device we call Martian Delight—a device intended to advance the astronauts' well-being.

Nowadays, the development of low Earth orbits’ (LEO) - up to 2000 km - small satellites (SSs) is of particular interest. Such SSs are supposed to use for effective telecommunication systems and advanced Earth research missions. When developing space missions of LEO SSs, designers and operators encounter a number of the following technical problems: an inability to use a single propulsion system for all flight operations, such as transfer from parking orbit to the target one, maneuvers between orbits, altitude control, orbit maintenance, attitude control, de-orbiting; a limited lifetime of conventional (Hall-Effect and Ion type) Electric Propulsion Systems (EPs) in low Earth orbits; high energy consumption of existing EPs; unloading of SSs' attitude control systems; de-orbiting of the SSs from the target orbit at the end of the active life to reduce contamination of LEO. The multidirectional electrodeless plasma thrusters could be the solution to overcome these problems. For example, such propulsion systems (PSs) can generate thrust in two directions. Using three bi-directional plasma thrusters in one PS, it is possible to create a plasma propulsion module with six thrust vectors that allows performing all of the SSs' space mission tasks where propulsion systems are needed while having a long-term service life in the upper atmosphere, low energy consumption – from 100 W, - and compact size – from 1U - which allows using this module on board of the SSs. This paper describes the first prototype of the six-directional plasma propulsion module. The focus of this paper is the study of the bi-directional wave plasma source with an open-ended gas discharge chamber and magnetic nozzles for plasma flow control – plasma flows acceleration and locking. The example of this source demonstrates the possibility of creating two thrust vectors using the single bi-directional wave plasma source and allows suggesting the creation of the six-directional wave plasma propulsion module for SSs.

National audience; The purpose of this paper is to address STM through an unconventional but pragmatic angle to help optimize efficient compliance governance. This paper proposes using antitrust mechanisms in space as a pragmatic and utilitarian tool for sustainable purposes with regards to STM within a soaring space ecosystem. In the context of accelerated space commercialization and privatization, having a new space antitrust framework at the helm of such transition might indeed prove to be a flexible yet decisive tool into shaping the future of STM and ensuringperennial protection of higher space principles which are enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty and form the essence of space law. On one hand, examples of antitrust key components include fair competition while, on the other hand, higher ethical principles of space law include non-discrimination and benefits sharing. Furthermore, in between these two extremes, security and commerce both rely, respectively on non-harmful interference and competitiveness.To navigate through all these factors, a new space antitrust framework might indeed prove strategic and beneficial to incentivizing the creation of an adaptive, polycentric and action-oriented governance mechanism with great resonance among the commercial new space players and reaffirm the importance of sustainable space traffic management before return on investment, while still making a profit in the long run.

Some of the most common defects that can be generated during the production of solid propellant are voids and porosity, usually associated with the casting process, and cracks and debonding, typically initiated by the high stresses caused by the curing process. This paper presents the development of an algorithm capable of evaluating the burning surface regression of a solid rocket booster when inclusions are present within the grain. The effects produced by the cavities are evaluated both in terms of performance (i.e., comparison with the behavior of the nominal combustion surface), and in terms of safety (i.e., evaluation of the thermal protection increased exposure). The paper also documents the influence of uncertainties in the knowledge of the real dimension and position of the inclusions detected within the motor. The radiography inspection of the motor is able to detect the presence of cavities within a certain level of accuracy, and the worst combination of these uncertainties has to be determined in order to guarantee, even under such circumstances, the safe and successful firing of the motor. The methodology developed in the paper is adapted in order to identify the worst uncertainty combination, and to subsequently determine the corresponding performance deviation.

The aerodynamic shape of the hypersonic forebody/inlet integrated vehicle is usually designed according to the inviscid flow. However, due to the effect of air viscosity, there is a boundary layer flow near the wall surface. In order to get the actual flow characteristics and performance parameters of the inviscid design vehicle close to the inviscid design values, the inviscid design surface must be corrected by considering the viscous boundary layer. In this paper, the theory and method of the boundary-layer viscous correction (BLVC) for the forebody/inlet integrated configuration are studied. Firstly, two modification schemes of the BLVC for the forebody/inlet integrated configuration are proposed. The calculation method of boundary-layer displacement thickness (BLDT) based on the momentum integral equation of steady two-dimensional (2D) axisymmetric compressible flow is described in detail, and two calculation methods of the BLDT are compared and analyzed. Secondly, the numerical simulation method used in this paper and its validation are introduced. Thirdly, an axisymmetric configuration of the forebody/inlet integration is selected as the first case, and two modification schemes of BLVC are studied and analyzed by numerical simulation. The effects of the two modification schemes of BLVC on the internal and external flow characteristics and aerodynamic performance of the axisymmetric configuration of the forebody/inlet integration are compared and analyzed. Finally, a full-waverider configuration of the forebody/inlet integration is selected as the second case, and the second modification scheme of the BLVC is used to modify the full-waverider configuration. The shock wave characteristics and inlet performance parameters of the modified full-waverider configuration are studied by both the numerical simulation and the wind tunnel experiment. The obtained results prove that the calculation method of the BLDT by a numerical integration method to solve the momentum integral equation of the steady 2D axisymmetric compressible flow is correct and the BLVC method and scheme for the forebody/inlet integrated configuration are effective. The modification scheme 1 of the BLVC can only improve the characteristics of forebody shock wave incident on the inlet lip under viscous conditions, that is, to improve the performance of inlet to capture precompressed air flow, while the modification scheme 2 of the BLVC can simultaneously improve the characteristics of forebody shock wave incident on the inlet lip and the characteristics of the lip shock wave cancelled on the shoulder of the inlet under viscous conditions, and make the air flow capture performance of the inlet and the pressure rise ratio at the inlet exit close to those of the inviscid design state.

Deep space exploration technology is an important development direction for scientific exploration. The penetrator method has been proposed as an inexpensive method of studying planetary bodies. The basic principle of this method is that the detection equipment carried by the high-speed penetrator hits a planetary body at a high speed and is buried up to several meters below the surface to carry out detection work. During the frictional collision process with the planets crust, the instantaneous acceleration peaks of the scientific payload (electronic instrumentation) are large. Shock protection of these payloads is necessary to improve their survival and mission success. In this paper, with the goal of improving the survival rate of scientific loads inside a penetrator, a penetrator with a multilayer energy-absorbing structure is developed, in which cushioning protection measures, such as an aluminum foam-filled corrugated tube(AFFT) structure, polyurethane rubber, and epoxy resin potting, are applied to the penetrator. Since the analysis of this process is a highly nonlinear problem, a numerical modeling method is the main approach in this paper. The LS-DYNA software platform was used to simulate the penetrators penetration process on a moon soil medium. The results obtained using empirical formulas and theoretical derivations were compared with the results of numerical analysis to ensure the accuracy of the penetration simulation model. The finite element model of the penetrator was then verified and modified by conducting shock response spectral experiments and shock simulations. The results showed that the spacer scheme had a positive effect on the impact isolation and energy absorption. In addition, this scheme provides an important reference for the design of the penetrator prototype to guarantee the success of subsequent ground rocket sled experiments.

This paper presents the embedded systems along with the first in-orbit results of FloripaSat-I, a complete CubeSat mission developed at the Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil. The satellite’s service module has three main subsystems, each with an embedded processor and its peripherals. This paper presents an overview of the nanosatellite architecture designed for the mission, including the embedded systems, functionalities, and components. Launched in December 2019 atop a Chinese Long March 4B rocket, FloripaSat-I has been since then transmitting mission data, which is a metric used to validate its open-source service platform through flight heritage. The results collected in orbit are presented and discussed, as well as the student’s perception about the challenges in the project. With the analysis of the results, it is possible to identify technical points to be improved by external groups with interest to reuse the open-source service platform for the next missions, and the impact that this teaching–learning methodology has in the students.

The capability accurately and timely detect a resident space object (RSO) maneuver is a critical task for monitoring space activities. This paper presents a data-driven Gaussian Binary RSO Maneuver Detection (GaBRSOMD) method to detect whether or not there is a maneuver between two tracks of the same RSO on different orbital paths. Using an in-house simulated space catalog environment, the Gaussian Binary Classification (GBC) method is used to detect three types of maneuvers: the maneuver is due to a small impulsive velocity change; a low thrust, and the maneuver is due to either an impulsive or a low thrust which is unknown a priori. Numerical results demonstrate that the proposed GBC model can achieve high accuracy in detecting all three cases of maneuvers. The paper further demonstrates that the GBC approach is robust to noisy data and has advantages over an AutoEncoder method and the classical Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method. Hence, the proposed GBC has great potential for making quick detection decision with both high accuracy and precision.

As small satellites are finding increased applicability in a number of space missions, the community is actively exploring the feasibility of missions employing active instruments on small spacecraft. In particular, synthetic aperture radars are of interest as they prove to be versatile tools for Earth Observation purposes. This paper proposes a trade space exploration model to identify designs for space-borne satellite synthetic aperture radars that address the desired instrument requirements. Two trade space analysis approaches are proposed, based on a multivariate analysis with two evaluation metrics and using parallel coordinate plots. The paper demonstrates the utility of the trade space model by considering two case studies. The first study looks at radar instruments on a broad range of small satellite platforms. This study narrows down a trade space of 1265 feasible radar designs to less than 44 Pareto optimal designs at different center frequencies (C- and X-band), elicits conditions for L-band SARs feasibility, and discusses the feasibility bounds and technical constraints on associated instrument and spacecraft requirements. The second study considers radars for 3U CubeSat platforms. The study identifies 44 Pareto optimal designs within 12,928 feasible designs and sheds light on the operational constraints required for the development of such innovative miniaturized radars.

Entrepreneurs and blue-chip corporations alike are seeking to capitalize on outer space's bountifulness, setting the NewSpace industry's growth ablaze and establishing an engine for an economic and technological revolution. However, meaningful impediments that could stifle the industry's growth are still present. The wide array of newly forming opportunities, pursued by a myriad of actors with various interests, encourages national legislatures to regulate where current international law leaves uncertainty. Such encouragement has created a landscape of conflicting national legislations, which thereby constructs an environment of regulatory competition as states vie for the attention of the NewSpace industry. This paper assesses some of the regulatory competitions already underway as well as provides insights into likely future competitions as technology improves and interest in NewSpace grows. Ultimately, this paper finds and warns of the effects of these competitions; specifically that, in many cases, the rise of regulatory competition threatens to lower the standards of governing policies. In such circumstances, this paper foresees the growing possibility of inhibiting the development of NewSpace, an unsettling outcome and a worthy cause for concern.

An atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion system (ABEP) uses the rarefied atmospheric molecules as the propellant for the electric thruster. In the best case, it can allow spacecraft (S/C) complete a long-time mission in very low Earth orbit (VLEO) without carrying any propellant. However, previous studies have shown that the thruster lifetime is limited by electrode erosion due to the aggressive gases, such as the atomic oxygen in VLEO. This paper design and analyse an inductively coupled plasma generator (ICPG) for ABEP system, and it is electrodeless to avoid electrode erosion. Based on the COMSOL Multiphysics, the simulation model of ICPG is established and analyzed. Multiple physical fields are coupled in this model including plasma, magnetic field, and flow field. The simulation model is verified by the experimental results of the literature. Driving by the radio frequency power, the plasma power distribution and thrust estimation of the ICPG under different input conditions (different drive powers and different operation gases) can be obtained. The results show that the ICPG may have a better performance under the condition of low mass flow and high drive power to compensate the drag. The gas species and their proportions have also great influence on the behaviours of ICPG. This paper can provide a convenient and efficient method to study the ICPG products for ABEP.

Implementing multifunctional bioregenerative technologies may provide mission carbon loop closure while simultaneously addressing multiple environmental control and life support system requirements. This paper proposes using water-based algal medium for thermal control of the spacecraft cabin, while taking advantage of the algae's photosynthetic activity for air revitalization. Consequently, this could expose the algal culture to transient thermal environments fluctuating between +4 °C and +30 °C, in the span of minutes, reflecting the operation of the International Space Station (ISS) internal thermal control and cabin system. This paper presents an initial investigation of the metabolic response of Chlorella vulgaris to transient environmental temperatures, reflecting temperature ranges and cycling frequency of the ISS cooling loop (+9 °C to +27 °C, 30 min). The constant 19 °C control represented the time-averaged temperature of the cycled condition. Growth and acclimation were observed in both tested conditions through pH, dissolved oxygen, optical density, and photosynthetic quantum yield measurements. However, there was significant reduction in the oxygen production rate, measured pH, and optical density for the cycled temperature condition when compared to the control (cycled temperature = 0.95 gO2 L−1 d−1, pH = 6.75, OD = 0.05; control = 1.17 gO2 L−1 d−1, pH = 8.20, OD = 0.08). No significant reduction in growth rate or photosynthetic quantum yield were recorded between the two tested conditions. Growth rate of the cycled temperature condition reflected those of psychrotolerant algae, suggesting some amount of culture acclimation to the rapidly dynamic environment. Results suggest that while C. vulgaris was viable within the tested temperature environment reflecting the ISS thermal control loop and cabin, there was a measurable reduction in the oxygen production rate.

The paper considers a new layout of a two-stage spacecraft designed to remove a group of large space debris objects such as the upper stages of ‘Zenit’ launch vehicles from low-earth orbit. The aim of the work is to preliminarily quantify the parameters of the shock-absorbing system of the robotic arm designed for capturing a redundant upper stage by the main rocket engine nozzle. The estimation will be conducted by means of numerical simulation of the motion dynamics of the "spacecraft - space debris object" system. The paper presents the results of calculating the transient mode of oscillations of objects connected by the manipulator using simplified and detailed dynamic models of parameters, the analysis of the placement options for the manipulator shock-absorbing system, the analysis of the load reduction possibility through the use of attitude control thrusters, the analysis of two dynamic design variants of the mechanism for grabbing the critical section of the nozzle, and analysis of the capture dynamics at different initial angular velocities of rotation of a space debris object. The most rational shock-absorbing solution for a robotic arm with two translational and two rotary dampers is found. It is shown that the dynamic design of the nozzle capture mechanism has the greatest effect on the robotic arm loading. The kinematic design of the gripper selected as a result of the simulation almost completely eliminates shock loads in the process of damping the system vibrations. It is shown that the robotic arm shock-absorbing design has a significant margin for the initial angular velocity of the space debris object.

The Asteroid (469219) 2016 HO 3 , one of the targets of the potential small celestial body missions, is a typical small-sized stable quasi-satellite of the Earth. Compared with the targets of previous impact missions, it is more challenging for a hypervelocity impact on 2016 HO 3 due to its much smaller size. Besides, the time durations for autonomous navigation and maneuver correction are greatly narrowed because the impactor can hardly capture the small-sized target until they are close enough. This paper suggests a high-precision autonomous navigation system and proposes a minimum-impact-error correction strategy for the targeting maneuver to solve the challenges. The navigation system utilizes traditional optical navigation assisted by a radar ranging measurement unit, which has been proved of high precision and short convergence time during the approach phase (better than 10 m in 100.0 s). After obtaining the relative positions and velocities, the targeting maneuvers are needed to correct the impactor’s orbit for a final successful impact. Therefore, a minimum-impact-error correction strategy is proposed to determine the optimal number and correction schedule of targeting maneuvers, which can minimize the impact error under the condition that the total velocity increments are limited. In the case of the 2016 HO 3 impactor, this paper conducts numerical Monte-Carlo simulations for validation. The results are encouraging, and the proportion of successful impact is above 99.1 percent. The correction strategy proposed in this paper is meaningful for future hypervelocity impact on small celestial bodies.

For impulse transfers, the solution of two-impulse rendezvous is generally obtained by solving the Lambert orbit problem, and the search for the exploration window of the target celestial body is a two-dimensional optimization based on velocity increment calculation. In order to assess the accessibility and exploration window of large-number asteroids, this paper approximates the transfer orbit from the Earth to the target asteroid as a co-planar two-impulse transfer orbit and gives an effective method. Based on the theory of cotangential transfer orbit, this paper proposes a method to express the transfer orbit with one single variable (the aphelion argument of the transfer orbit, θT), which can also determine the start time of the transfer. After that, the paper combines the two-impulse orbit transfer theory (without considering the rendezvous) with the calculation method of the exploration window (considering the rendezvous), proposing the concept of the rendezvous difference angle eR. eR is defined as the mean anomaly angle difference between the spacecraft and the target object when the spacecraft enters the target orbit. The rendezvous difference angle eR has the same minimum point as the velocity increment in exploration window search, while it can be directly calculated from the transfer orbit and the transfer time. When cotangential transfer orbits are used, eR can be expressed as a function of θT. Taking eR as the optimal target variable, the exploration window search can be simplified to a one-dimensional problem. This method is suitable for the large-scale accessibility calculation for asteroids with low inclinations, so as to quickly determine the accessible target group.

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or Electric Double-Layer Capacitors, are considered as new solutions for space power supplies because of their advantages such as a high power-density, a wide temperature range and a long life. Graphene supercapacitors (GSCs), with graphene structure served as the highly active material, are new types of high-performance and new-concept supercapacitors. However, there are no cases of supercapacitors, especially GSCs, being used as power system for spacecraft independently. This paper introduces the design, test and application of the power supply based on GSCs for the electromagnetic separation system in Q-SAT mission. The power supply is integrated by multiple GSCs to meet the requirements of the separation system, providing 600W power within 2 × 10−5 m3 and 1 kg. The design, packaging method, test and result is reported in the paper. The rated voltage of the selected GSCs is 2.7 V, and the power density reaches 1.1 × 103 W/kg and 2.6 × 106 W/m3. The power supply based on GSCs has passed the verification test successfully including mechanical, electrical, vacuum and thermal tests from −20–60 °C. It successfully drove the separation system and guaranteed the task of unlocking and releasing Q-SAT in the flight on Aug 6, 2020. The significance of this work lies in the following aspects: First, the feasibility of application on the satellite separation system in space of GSC is demonstrated. Second, the design and application case of supercapacitor as a driving power supply for a satellite separation system is presented. Third, a screening and integration method for GSCs packaged as a space power supply is proposed and verified. The space power supply based on GSCs will be used more widely in space according to this research.

The tether-net system is a promising technique for active debris removal. The capture process of a tether-net system for debris exhibits the nonlinear dynamics of very high dimensions and requires the dynamic simulation of high accuracy and efficiency in the design stage. This paper presents an integrated approach of both method of discrete elastic rods and algorithm of energy-conserving integration for the above purpose. The study shows that the method of discrete elastic rods is more suitable for modeling the extremely flexible threads of a woven net than the slender beam elements with C1 continuity. Besides, the energy-conserving integrator embedded in the present approach well conserves the total energy, and does not produce any numerical dissipations. The paper gives three numerical examples, including the capturing process of a hexagonal tether-net system for a space target, to demonstrate the advantages of the present approach, as well as the influence of some initial control parameters on the deployment phase of the tether-net system.

The objective of this paper is to perform an in-depth feasibility analysis and dimensioning of a potential Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) and power system for a crewed lunar base at the lunar south pole. The analyzed ECLSS includes an In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) reactor for oxygen resupply and a Regenerative Fuel Cell System (RFCS) as power supply during shadow phases. The co-dependencies and interactions between the ECLSS sub-systems themselves and with the environment are incorporated to achieve a holistic system analysis. We used a fixed ECLSS configuration based on the current NASA plans for a Moon base ECLSS with a fixed function-to-subsystem allocation. The performed trade-offs are then restricted within the design space, to e.g. resize tanks and individual subsystems instead of considering other possible subsystems. We chose this approach because the aim of this paper is to perform an in-depth system analysis of all related subsystems and their interaction with the environment instead of a top-level trade-off. The first step is the selection of a suitable landing site and the dynamic simulation of its lighting conditions over the investigated period of 1 year. We use a slope map with a resolution of 120 m per pixel, a Permanently Shaded Region (PSR) map with a resolution of 240 m per pixel and a digital elevation model with a resolution of 240 m per point, which is interpolated from a source with a resolution of 60 m per pixel and meshed with triangles by the Thermal Moon Simulator (TherMoS) tool in order to calculate illumination values. The requirements chosen for the candidate landing sites are a slope of less than 5° over a diameter of at least 1 km and having both a PSR and a Peak of Light (POL) in less than 10 km distance. We discuss the four most promising candidate sites in this paper and calculate initial energy storage system estimates to select two landing sites for further analysis. We derive a reaction kinetics model for the ilmenite hydrogen reduction ISRU process from literature data and incorporate it into a dynamic model with simulated lighting and thermal conditions to calculate heat losses to the environment and the required electrical energy for its operation. In addition, we use the derived model to analyze and compare different design options of the ISRU reactor with an Equivalent System Mass (ESM) based optimization approach to identify the optimal operating conditions. Using this approach, we found operating temperatures above 1150 K resulted in higher ESM values for the reactor than lower temperatures. For the Moon base, we combine an ISS ECLSS model and the ISRU reactor model. The state-of-the-art urine and water processing technologies achieve recovery rates of up to 98%. Hence, we expect the overall ECLSS including the ISRU reactor to have a water surplus when combined with a Sabatier reactor to process metabolic CO2 from the crew into methane and water. Therefore, the Sabatier reactor combined with an electrolyzer can potentially generate methane and oxygen as fuel for resupply missions. The system can achieve a theoretic fuel production of 4100 kg per year using this approach. Although the dynamic analysis showed that only 2588 kg could be produced per year because of the lean operating conditions of the Sabatier and its efficiency of below 100%. The produced oxygen and methane could reduce operating costs for the base by reducing the required fuel resupply. Based on the power demands of the other subsystems and the available solar power and shadow duration at the selected landing site, we dimensioned the RFCS and estimate the required mass for it to 19,500 kg. Which is less than half the mass required if lithium batteries are used. The overall system requires resupply of approximately 6580 kg per year for a crew of six. The dynamic analysis of the system showed that the initial mostly steady state sizing approach can be optimized and relevant system parameters can be reduced by more than 15%.

The importance of interdisciplinary approaches through collaborative mindset, cross-field knowledge, and co-creative team actions is integral for continuing space exploration success as evidenced by past and ongoing terrestrial space habitat analog missions and extraordinary International Space Station (ISS) achievements. This paper presents the third annual iterative outcomes of an innovative university-based space program using Project Based Learning (PBL) methodology in creating design ideas for astronaut health support and wellbeing during a long duration mission (LDM) for a future inhabited lunar moon base or Mars Mission astronaut transit. University faculties including Built Environment, Industrial Design, Engineering, Science, and Health, at Western Sydney University Australia and supported by University of Houston USA are brought together to develop a new understanding of discipline capabilities with the prospect to co-creatively provide new opportunities and inspiration for teamwork across fields. This is of key interest to employers of new graduates in space or innovation-based industries where human factors and designing for high quality human-centered outcomes supports career resilience through currency, agility, and focus. The altruistic nature of interactions that make the ISS a success on multiple levels across cultural, scientific and humanitarian foundations provide the template for cross-disciplinary inspiration, that leverage synergies, and shared goals unattainable by single fields alone. It is not common for disciplines to work so closely together though industry has an expectation for this knowledge. Previously teams of three (2018); five (2019), and now ten undergraduates in 2020 represent team formation. Student numbers across the design for space theme have grown annually from fifteen, to twenty-five, to forty students in 2020. Now opportunities to respond to the complexities of the project in more detail are presented in addressing the overarching research domains in spatial design, human factors and design for health for LDMs. Team supervisory academic staff grew from 1-to-3 and provided further team guidance and discipline specialisations to inform three iterative project phases across the twelve activity weeks for four teams focusing on human spaceflight, exercise, related design performance and materials, and selected UNSDGs principles. The paper outlines the methodological approach, assessment methods, acculturation to working in teams and immersion in space knowledge for newcomers, and a review of forty collaborative outcomes all conducted by migrating Online during the COVID19 pandemic of 2020 by necessity. Periodic project collaborations with sports and health science, engineering, health informatics, space architects, a former astronaut, a representative from NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) Flight Control, and industrial design academics (project host discipline and non-traditional space area) provided an environment for discussion, development, and co-creative processes that have led to new discoveries and stimuli for new collaboration, international understanding and advancing humankind in space and on earth.