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ObjectiveTo contrast sociodemographic characteristics, physical and mental health status, substance use, sexual behaviors, victimization, and utilization of health services between homeless women residing in sheltered and non-sheltered environments.DesignCross-sectional survey. A structured scale was used to measure mental health status. Physical health status, substance use, sexual behavior, history of adult victimization, and health services utilization were measured by content-specific items.SettingShelters (N = 47) and outdoor locations in Los Angeles.ParticipantsOne thousand fifty-one homeless women.ResultsHomeless women living on the streets were more likely than sheltered women to be white and longer-term homeless. Controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that unsheltered women had over 3 times greater odds of fair or poor physical health, and over 12 times greater odds of poor mental health than sheltered homeless women. They were also more likely than sheltered women to report using alcohol or noninjection drugs, to have multiple sexual partners, and to have a history of physical assault. About half of the overall sample reported utilization of a variety of health services; however, unsheltered homeless women were less likely to utilize all of the health services that were assessed, including drug treatment.ConclusionsThere is a critical need for aggressive outreach programs that provide mental health services and substance abuse treatment for homeless women on the streets. Comprehensive services that also include medical care, family planning, violence prevention, and behavioral risk reduction may be particularly valuable for homeless women, especially those living in unsheltered environments.

A qualitative research approach was used to explore the factors that influence the initiation of drug and alcohol use among homeless women and the health and social consequences of drug and alcohol use. The sample consisted of 238 women; of whom 209 women reported drug and/or alcohol use in the past month and 29 women reported no history of drug or alcohol use. Findings of the study revealed homeless women who currently used drugs and alcohol, homeless women who currently used drugs only, and to a lesser extent current alcohol users only, had suffered traumatic childhood events and family dysfunction and had to cope with low self-esteem, emotional distress, and poor physical health. The initiation of drug and/or alcohol use was strongly affected by the social influence of other users. In comparison, homeless women who did not use drugs or alcohol reported a positive self-image, few traumatic events, and chose partners who did not use drugs or alcohol. Common among current drug and/or alcohol users were the reported social benefits of drug use. Quantitative analyses revealed homeless women who were current drug users were significantly more likely to have experienced childhood and adult victimization as compared with women in the other groups. Thus, the need for social interventions and positive social support early in the lives of these women are strongly implicated in these findings.

The long-term effects of two culturally competent AIDS education programs with different content on the risk behavior and AIDS-related knowledge of 410 homeless African American women 2 years after program completion were examined. Participants were members of a larger cohort of impoverished African American and Latina women recruited in Los Angeles from 1989 to 1991. Of a subsample of 527 African American women selected randomly for a 2-year follow-up interview, 410 (78%) were located and agreed to participate. Women participating in both AIDS education programs reported reduced HIV risk behaviors and demonstrated greatly improved AIDS knowledge at 2-year follow-up (p < .001). Women in a specialized program were less likely than those in a traditional program to report noninjection drug use at 2 years. Women in the traditional program had significantly better AIDS knowledge at follow-up (p < .001). These findings suggest that educational programs can produce sustained benefits among impoverished women.

A qualitative research approach was used to explore the factors that influence the initiation of drug and alcohol use among homeless women and the health and social consequences of drug and alcohol use. The sample consisted of 238 women; of whom 209 women reported drug and/or alcohol use in the past month and 29 women reported no history of drug or alcohol use. Findings of the study revealed homeless women who currently used drugs and alcohol, homeless women who currently used drugs only, and to a lesser extent current alcohol users only, had suffered traumatic childhood events and family dysfunction and had to cope with low self-esteem, emotional distress, and poor physical health. The initiation of drug and/or alcohol use was strongly affected by the social influence of other users. In comparison, homeless women who did not use drugs or alcohol reported a positive self-image, few traumatic events, and chose partners who did not use drugs or alcohol. Common among current drug and/or alcohol users were the reported social benefits of drug use. Quantitative analyses revealed homeless women who were current drug users were significantly more likely to have experienced childhood and adult victimization as compared with women in the other groups. Thus, the need for social interventions and positive social support early in the lives of these women are strongly implicated in these findings.

The researchers sought to explore and describe the demographic, cognitive, psychosocial, and behavioral factors associated with the continued risky behavior of a convenience sample of homeless and drug-addicted women two to four weeks after they had completed an AIDS education program. The sample included 942 crack users and 767 women who had multiple sex partners. Analyses revealed that impoverished women who maintained multiple sexual partners were less likely to be in drug recovery programs than in homeless shelters. They were more likely to share needles and be involved sexually with male injection drug users compared with impoverished women who did not maintain multiple sexual partners. Persistent crack users were older than those who reported cessation of crack use, were more often African American, and were more likely to have sex partners who were injecting drug users. Women who demonstrated less improvement in depression and distress scores, concerns, use of affective coping, appraisal of threat, and social support were more likely to maintain crack use and multiple partners. The study's implications for the design of intervention programs aimed at risk reduction based on ethnicity are discussed.

This study was undertaken to describe sexual behaviors and drug use and other factors that inhibit condom use and needle cleaning among impoverished women who are injection drug users (IDUs) or sexual partners of IDUs. This study also investigated whether risky sexual behavior or barriers to risk reduction differ with ethnicity and level of acculturation. Survey instruments to assess drug and sexual activity were administered to 378 African American and Latina women recruited primarily from homeless shelters and drug recovery programs. The most commonly cited barriers to condom use were belief that partners did not have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), lack of knowledge about where to get and how to use condoms, and discomfort discussing condom use with partners. African American women were more likely to report having multiple partners and unprotected sex, and more likely to report barriers in using, discussing, and obtaining condoms. Latina women were more likely to report partners' dislike of condoms. African American and highly acculturated Latina women were more likely to be IDUs than less acculturated Latina women. The most pervasive barriers for needle cleaning were not having personal needles, being high and not interested in needle cleaning, and not having disinfectant available. In a multiple logistic regression analysis for engaging in unprotected sex and cleaning needles, not ethnic or acculturation differences were found after controlling for selected demographic characteristics and risk factors. The data indicate a need to increase the supply of free or low cost condoms, to provide easily accessible sites for obtaining condoms, to supply clean needles,and to focus counseling for women on negotiating condom use with partners and the skillful and correct placement of the condom.

This study was undertaken to describe sexual behaviors and drug use and other factors that inhibit condom use and needle cleaning among impoverished women who are injection drug users (IDUs) or sexual partners of IDUs. This study also investigated whether risky sexual behavior or barriers to risk reduction differ with ethnicity and level of acculturation. Survey instruments to assess drug and sexual activity were administered to 378 African American and Latina women recruited primarily from homeless shelters and drug recovery programs. The most commonly cited barriers to condom use were belief that partners did not have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), lack of knowledge about where to get and how to use condoms, and discomfort discussing condom use with partners. African American women were more likely to report having multiple partners and unprotected sex, and more likely to report barriers in using, discussing, and obtaining condoms. Latina women were more likely to report partners' dislike of condoms. African American and highly acculturated Latina women were more likely to be IDUs than less acculturated Latina women. The most pervasive barriers for needle cleaning were not having personal needles, being high and not interested in needle cleaning, and not having disinfectant available. In a multiple logistic regression analysis for engaging in unprotected sex and cleaning needles, not ethnic or acculturation differences were found after controlling for selected demographic characteristics and risk factors. The data indicate a need to increase the supply of free or low cost condoms, to provide easily accessible sites for obtaining condoms, to supply clean needles,and to focus counseling for women on negotiating condom use with partners and the skillful and correct placement of the condom.

The researchers sought to explore and describe the demographic, cognitive, psychosocial, and behavioral factors associated with the continued risky behavior of a convenience sample of homeless and drug-addicted women two to four weeks after they had completed an AIDS education program. The sample included 942 crack users and 767 women who had multiple sex partners. Analyses revealed that impoverished women who maintained multiple sexual partners were less likely to be in drug recovery programs than in homeless shelters. They were more likely to share needles and be involved sexually with male injection drug users compared with impoverished women who did not maintain multiple sexual partners. Persistent crack users were older than those who reported cessation of crack use, were more often African American, and were more likely to have sex partners who were injecting drug users. Women who demonstrated less improvement in depression and distress scores, concerns, use of affective coping, appraisal of threat, and social support were more likely to maintain crack use and multiple partners. The study's implications for the design of intervention programs aimed at risk reduction based on ethnicity are discussed.