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The role of friction in the functional performance of biomaterial interfaces is widely reckoned to be critical and complicated but poorly understood. To better understand friction forces, we investigated the natural adaptation of the holdfast or byssus of mussels that live in high-energy surf habitats. As the outermost covering of the byssus, the cuticle deserves particular attention for its adaptations to frictional wear under shear. In this study, we coacervated one of three variants of a key cuticular component, mussel foot protein 1, mfp-1 [(1) Mytilus californianus mcfp-1, (2) rmfp-1, and (3) rmfp-1-Dopa], with hyaluronic acid (HA) and investigated the wear protection capabilities of these coacervates to surfaces (mica) during shear. Native mcfp-1/HA coacervates had an intermediate coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3) but conferred excellent wear protection to mica with no damage from applied loads, F⊥, as high as 300 mN (pressure, P, > 2 MPa). Recombinant rmfp-1/HA coacervates exhibited a comparable coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3); however, wear protection was significantly inferior (damage at F⊥ > 60 mN) compared with that of native protein coacervates. Wear protection of rmfp-1/HA coacervates increased 5-fold upon addition of the surface adhesive group 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, (Dopa). We propose a Dopa-dependent wear protection mechanism to explain the differences in wear protection between coacervates. Our results reveal a significant untapped potential for coacervates in applications that require adhesion, lubrication, and wear protection. These applications include artificial joints, contact lenses, dental sealants, and hair and skin conditioners.

The role of friction in the functional performance of biomaterial interfaces is widely reckoned to be critical and complicated but poorly understood. To better understand friction forces, we investigated the natural adaptation of the holdfast or byssus of mussels that live in high-energy surf habitats. As the outermost covering of the byssus, the cuticle deserves particular attention for its adaptations to frictional wear under shear. In this study, we coacervated one of three variants of a key cuticular component, mussel foot protein 1, mfp-1 [(1) Mytilus californianus mcfp-1, (2) rmfp-1, and (3) rmfp-1-Dopa], with hyaluronic acid (HA) and investigated the wear protection capabilities of these coacervates to surfaces (mica) during shear. Native mcfp-1/HA coacervates had an intermediate coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3) but conferred excellent wear protection to mica with no damage from applied loads, F⊥, as high as 300 mN (pressure, P, > 2 MPa). Recombinant rmfp-1/HA coacervates exhibited a comparable coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3); however, wear protection was significantly inferior (damage at F⊥ > 60 mN) compared with that of native protein coacervates. Wear protection of rmfp-1/HA coacervates increased 5-fold upon addition of the surface adhesive group 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, (Dopa). We propose a Dopa-dependent wear protection mechanism to explain the differences in wear protection between coacervates. Our results reveal a significant untapped potential for coacervates in applications that require adhesion, lubrication, and wear protection. These applications include artificial joints, contact lenses, dental sealants, and hair and skin conditioners.

The role of friction in the functional performance of biomaterial interfaces is widely reckoned to be critical and complicated but poorly understood. To better understand friction forces, we investigated the natural adaptation of the holdfast or byssus of mussels that live in high-energy surf habitats. As the outermost covering of the byssus, the cuticle deserves particular attention for its adaptations to frictional wear under shear. In this study, we coacervated one of three variants of a key cuticular component, mussel foot protein 1, mfp-1 [(1) Mytilus californianus mcfp-1, (2) rmfp-1, and (3) rmfp-1-Dopa], with hyaluronic acid (HA) and investigated the wear protection capabilities of these coacervates to surfaces (mica) during shear. Native mcfp-1/HA coacervates had an intermediate coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3) but conferred excellent wear protection to mica with no damage from applied loads, F⊥, as high as 300 mN (pressure, P, > 2 MPa). Recombinant rmfp-1/HA coacervates exhibited a comparable coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3); however, wear protection was significantly inferior (damage at F⊥ > 60 mN) compared with that of native protein coacervates. Wear protection of rmfp-1/HA coacervates increased 5-fold upon addition of the surface adhesive group 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, (Dopa). We propose a Dopa-dependent wear protection mechanism to explain the differences in wear protection between coacervates. Our results reveal a significant untapped potential for coacervates in applications that require adhesion, lubrication, and wear protection. These applications include artificial joints, contact lenses, dental sealants, and hair and skin conditioners.

Mussel adhesion to mineral surfaces is widely attributed to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) functionalities in the mussel foot proteins (mfps). Several mfps, however, show a broad range (30-100%) of Tyrosine (Tyr) to Dopa conversion suggesting that Dopa is not the only desirable outcome for adhesion. Here, we used a partial recombinant construct of mussel foot protein-1 (rmfp-1) and short decapeptide dimers with and without Dopa and assessed both their cohesive and adhesive properties on mica using a surface forces apparatus (SFA). Our results demonstrate that at low pH, both the unmodified and Dopa-containing rmfp-1s show similar energies for adhesion to mica and self-self interaction. Cohesion between two Dopa-containing rmfp-1 surfaces can be doubled by Fe3+ chelation, but remains unchanged with unmodified rmfp-1. At the same low pH, the Dopa modified short decapeptide dimer did not show any change in cohesive interactions even with Fe3+. Our results suggest that the most probable intermolecular interactions are those arising from electrostatic (i.e., cation-π) and hydrophobic interactions. We also show that Dopa in a peptide sequence does not by itself mediate Fe3+ bridging interactions between peptide films: peptide length is a crucial enabling factor.

Mussel adhesion to mineral surfaces is widely attributed to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) functionalities in the mussel foot proteins (mfps). Several mfps, however, show a broad range (30-100%) of Tyrosine (Tyr) to Dopa conversion suggesting that Dopa is not the only desirable outcome for adhesion. Here, we used a partial recombinant construct of mussel foot protein-1 (rmfp-1) and short decapeptide dimers with and without Dopa and assessed both their cohesive and adhesive properties on mica using a surface forces apparatus (SFA). Our results demonstrate that at low pH, both the unmodified and Dopa-containing rmfp-1s show similar energies for adhesion to mica and self-self interaction. Cohesion between two Dopa-containing rmfp-1 surfaces can be doubled by Fe3+ chelation, but remains unchanged with unmodified rmfp-1. At the same low pH, the Dopa modified short decapeptide dimer did not show any change in cohesive interactions even with Fe3+. Our results suggest that the most probable intermolecular interactions are those arising from electrostatic (i.e., cation-π) and hydrophobic interactions. We also show that Dopa in a peptide sequence does not by itself mediate Fe3+ bridging interactions between peptide films: peptide length is a crucial enabling factor.

Numerous attempts have been made to translate mussel adhesion to diverse synthetic platforms. However, the translation remains largely limited to the Dopa (3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) or catechol functionality, which continues to raise concerns about Dopa's inherent susceptibility to oxidation. Mussels have evolved adaptations to stabilize Dopa against oxidation. For example, in mussel foot protein 3 slow (mfp-3s, one of two electrophoretically distinct interfacial adhesive proteins in mussel plaques), the high proportion of hydrophobic amino acid residues in the flanking sequence around Dopa increases Dopa's oxidation potential. In this study, copolyampholytes, which combine the catechol functionality with amphiphilic and ionic features of mfp-3s, were synthesized and formulated as coacervates for adhesive deposition on surfaces. The ratio of hydrophilic/hydrophobic as well as cationic/anionic units was varied in order to enhance coacervate formation and wet adhesion properties. Aqueous solutions of two of the four mfp-3s-inspired copolymers showed coacervate-like spherical microdroplets (ϕ ≈ 1-5 μm at pH ∼4 (salt concentration ∼15 mM). The mfp-3s-mimetic copolymer was stable to oxidation, formed coacervates that spread evenly over mica, and strongly bonded to mica surfaces (pull-off strength: ∼17.0 mJ/m(2)). Increasing pH to 7 after coacervate deposition at pH 4 doubled the bonding strength to ∼32.9 mJ/m(2) without oxidative cross-linking and is about 9 times higher than native mfp-3s cohesion. This study expands the scope of translating mussel adhesion from simple Dopa-functionalization to mimicking the context of the local environment around Dopa.

Numerous attempts have been made to translate mussel adhesion to diverse synthetic platforms. However, the translation remains largely limited to the Dopa (3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) or catechol functionality, which continues to raise concerns about Dopa's inherent susceptibility to oxidation. Mussels have evolved adaptations to stabilize Dopa against oxidation. For example, in mussel foot protein 3 slow (mfp-3s, one of two electrophoretically distinct interfacial adhesive proteins in mussel plaques), the high proportion of hydrophobic amino acid residues in the flanking sequence around Dopa increases Dopa's oxidation potential. In this study, copolyampholytes, which combine the catechol functionality with amphiphilic and ionic features of mfp-3s, were synthesized and formulated as coacervates for adhesive deposition on surfaces. The ratio of hydrophilic/hydrophobic as well as cationic/anionic units was varied in order to enhance coacervate formation and wet adhesion properties. Aqueous solutions of two of the four mfp-3s-inspired copolymers showed coacervate-like spherical microdroplets (ϕ ≈ 1-5 μm at pH ∼4 (salt concentration ∼15 mM). The mfp-3s-mimetic copolymer was stable to oxidation, formed coacervates that spread evenly over mica, and strongly bonded to mica surfaces (pull-off strength: ∼17.0 mJ/m(2)). Increasing pH to 7 after coacervate deposition at pH 4 doubled the bonding strength to ∼32.9 mJ/m(2) without oxidative cross-linking and is about 9 times higher than native mfp-3s cohesion. This study expands the scope of translating mussel adhesion from simple Dopa-functionalization to mimicking the context of the local environment around Dopa.

Surfactant self-assembly on surfaces is an effective way to tailor the complex forces at and between hydrophobic-water interfaces. Here, the range of structures and forces that are possible at surfactant-adsorbed hydrophobic surfaces are demonstrated: certain long-chain bolaform surfactants-containing a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mid-block domain and two cationic α, ω-quarternary ammonium end-groups-readily adsorb onto thin PDMS films and form dynamically fluctuating nanostructures. Through measurements with the surface forces apparatus (SFA), it is found that these soft protruding nanostructures display polymer-like exploration behavior at the PDMS surface and give rise to a long-ranged, temperature- and rate-dependent attractive bridging force (not due to viscous forces) on approach to a hydrophilic bare mica surface. Coulombic interactions between the cationic surfactant end-groups and negatively-charged mica result in a rate-dependent polymer bridging force during separation as the hydrophobic surfactant mid-blocks are pulled out from the PDMS interface, yielding strong adhesion energies. Thus, (i) the versatile array of surfactant structures that may form at hydrophobic surfaces is highlighted, (ii) the need to consider the interaction dynamics of such self-assembled polymer layers is emphasized, and (iii) it is shown that long-chain surfactants can promote robust adhesion in aqueous solutions.

Surfactant self-assembly on surfaces is an effective way to tailor the complex forces at and between hydrophobic-water interfaces. Here, the range of structures and forces that are possible at surfactant-adsorbed hydrophobic surfaces are demonstrated: certain long-chain bolaform surfactants-containing a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mid-block domain and two cationic α, ω-quarternary ammonium end-groups-readily adsorb onto thin PDMS films and form dynamically fluctuating nanostructures. Through measurements with the surface forces apparatus (SFA), it is found that these soft protruding nanostructures display polymer-like exploration behavior at the PDMS surface and give rise to a long-ranged, temperature- and rate-dependent attractive bridging force (not due to viscous forces) on approach to a hydrophilic bare mica surface. Coulombic interactions between the cationic surfactant end-groups and negatively-charged mica result in a rate-dependent polymer bridging force during separation as the hydrophobic surfactant mid-blocks are pulled out from the PDMS interface, yielding strong adhesion energies. Thus, (i) the versatile array of surfactant structures that may form at hydrophobic surfaces is highlighted, (ii) the need to consider the interaction dynamics of such self-assembled polymer layers is emphasized, and (iii) it is shown that long-chain surfactants can promote robust adhesion in aqueous solutions.

Understanding the interactions between collagen and adhesive mussel foot proteins (mfps) can lead to improved medical and dental adhesives, particularly for collagen-rich tissues. Here we investigated interactions between collagen type-1, the most abundant load-bearing animal protein, and mussel foot protein-3 (mfp-3) using a quartz crystal microbalance and surface forces apparatus (SFA). Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic variants of mfp-3 were exploited to probe the nature of the interaction between the protein and collagen. Our chief findings are: 1) mfp-3 is an effective chaperone for tropocollagen adsorption to TiO2 and mica surfaces; 2) at pH 3, collagen addition between two mfp-3 films (Wc = 5.4 ± 0.2 mJ/m(2)) increased their cohesion by nearly 35%; 3) oxidation of Dopa in mfp-3 by periodate did not abolish the adhesion between collagen and mfp-3 films, and 4) collagen bridging between both hydrophilic and hydrophobic mfp-3 variant films is equally robust, suggesting that hydrophobic interactions play a minor role. Extensive H-bonding, π-cation and electrostatic interactions are more plausible to explain the reversible bridging of mfp-3 films by collagen.

Understanding the interactions between collagen and adhesive mussel foot proteins (mfps) can lead to improved medical and dental adhesives, particularly for collagen-rich tissues. Here we investigated interactions between collagen type-1, the most abundant load-bearing animal protein, and mussel foot protein-3 (mfp-3) using a quartz crystal microbalance and surface forces apparatus (SFA). Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic variants of mfp-3 were exploited to probe the nature of the interaction between the protein and collagen. Our chief findings are: 1) mfp-3 is an effective chaperone for tropocollagen adsorption to TiO2 and mica surfaces; 2) at pH 3, collagen addition between two mfp-3 films (Wc = 5.4 ± 0.2 mJ/m(2)) increased their cohesion by nearly 35%; 3) oxidation of Dopa in mfp-3 by periodate did not abolish the adhesion between collagen and mfp-3 films, and 4) collagen bridging between both hydrophilic and hydrophobic mfp-3 variant films is equally robust, suggesting that hydrophobic interactions play a minor role. Extensive H-bonding, π-cation and electrostatic interactions are more plausible to explain the reversible bridging of mfp-3 films by collagen.

Mussel foot protein-1 (mfp-1) is an essential constituent of the protective cuticle covering all exposed portions of the byssus (plaque and the thread) that marine mussels use to attach to intertidal rocks. The reversible complexation of Fe(3+) by the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) side chains in mfp-1 in Mytilus californianus cuticle is responsible for its high extensibility (120%) as well as its stiffness (2 GPa) due to the formation of sacrificial bonds that help to dissipate energy and avoid accumulation of stresses in the material. We have investigated the interactions between Fe(3+) and mfp-1 from two mussel species, M. californianus (Mc) and M. edulis (Me), using both surface sensitive and solution phase techniques. Our results show that although mfp-1 homologues from both species bind Fe(3+), mfp-1 (Mc) contains Dopa with two distinct Fe(3+)-binding tendencies and prefers to form intramolecular complexes with Fe(3+). In contrast, mfp-1 (Me) is better adapted to intermolecular Fe(3+) binding by Dopa. Addition of Fe(3+) did not significantly increase the cohesion energy between the mfp-1 (Mc) films at pH 5.5. However, iron appears to stabilize the cohesive bridging of mfp-1 (Mc) films at the physiologically relevant pH of 7.5, where most other mfps lose their ability to adhere reversibly. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning the capacity of M. californianus cuticle to withstand twice the strain of M. edulis cuticle is important for engineering of tunable strain tolerant composite coatings for biomedical applications.

Mussel foot protein-1 (mfp-1) is an essential constituent of the protective cuticle covering all exposed portions of the byssus (plaque and the thread) that marine mussels use to attach to intertidal rocks. The reversible complexation of Fe(3+) by the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) side chains in mfp-1 in Mytilus californianus cuticle is responsible for its high extensibility (120%) as well as its stiffness (2 GPa) due to the formation of sacrificial bonds that help to dissipate energy and avoid accumulation of stresses in the material. We have investigated the interactions between Fe(3+) and mfp-1 from two mussel species, M. californianus (Mc) and M. edulis (Me), using both surface sensitive and solution phase techniques. Our results show that although mfp-1 homologues from both species bind Fe(3+), mfp-1 (Mc) contains Dopa with two distinct Fe(3+)-binding tendencies and prefers to form intramolecular complexes with Fe(3+). In contrast, mfp-1 (Me) is better adapted to intermolecular Fe(3+) binding by Dopa. Addition of Fe(3+) did not significantly increase the cohesion energy between the mfp-1 (Mc) films at pH 5.5. However, iron appears to stabilize the cohesive bridging of mfp-1 (Mc) films at the physiologically relevant pH of 7.5, where most other mfps lose their ability to adhere reversibly. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning the capacity of M. californianus cuticle to withstand twice the strain of M. edulis cuticle is important for engineering of tunable strain tolerant composite coatings for biomedical applications.

The discovery and understanding of gecko 'frictional-adhesion' adhering and climbing mechanism has allowed researchers to mimic and create gecko-inspired adhesives. A few experimental and theoretical approaches have been taken to understand the effect of surface roughness on synthetic adhesive performance, and the implications of stick-slip friction during shearing. This work extends previous studies by using a modified surface forces apparatus to quantitatively measure and model frictional forces between arrays of polydimethylsiloxane gecko footpad-mimetic tilted microflaps against smooth and rough glass surfaces. Constant attachments and detachments occur between the surfaces during shearing, as described by an avalanche model. These detachments ultimately result in failure of the adhesion interface and have been characterized in this study. Stick-slip friction disappears with increasing velocity when the flaps are sheared against a smooth silica surface; however, stick-slip was always present at all velocities and loads tested when shearing the flaps against rough glass surfaces. These results demonstrate the significance of pre-load, shearing velocity, shearing distances, commensurability and shearing direction of gecko-mimetic adhesives and provide us a simple model for analysing and/or designing such systems.

The discovery and understanding of gecko 'frictional-adhesion' adhering and climbing mechanism has allowed researchers to mimic and create gecko-inspired adhesives. A few experimental and theoretical approaches have been taken to understand the effect of surface roughness on synthetic adhesive performance, and the implications of stick-slip friction during shearing. This work extends previous studies by using a modified surface forces apparatus to quantitatively measure and model frictional forces between arrays of polydimethylsiloxane gecko footpad-mimetic tilted microflaps against smooth and rough glass surfaces. Constant attachments and detachments occur between the surfaces during shearing, as described by an avalanche model. These detachments ultimately result in failure of the adhesion interface and have been characterized in this study. Stick-slip friction disappears with increasing velocity when the flaps are sheared against a smooth silica surface; however, stick-slip was always present at all velocities and loads tested when shearing the flaps against rough glass surfaces. These results demonstrate the significance of pre-load, shearing velocity, shearing distances, commensurability and shearing direction of gecko-mimetic adhesives and provide us a simple model for analysing and/or designing such systems.

Mussel (Mytilus californianus) adhesion to marine surfaces involves an intricate and adaptive synergy of molecules and spatio-temporal processes. Although the molecules, such as mussel foot proteins (mfps), are well characterized, deposition details remain vague and speculative. Developing methods for the precise surveillance of conditions that apply during mfp deposition would aid both in understanding mussel adhesion and translating this adhesion into useful technologies. To probe the interfacial pH at which mussels buffer the local environment during mfp deposition, a lipid bilayer with tethered pH-sensitive fluorochromes was assembled on mica. The interfacial pH during foot contact with modified mica ranged from 2.2 to 3.3, which is well below the seawater pH of ~ 8. The acidic pH serves multiple functions: it limits mfp-Dopa oxidation, thereby enabling the catecholic functionalities to adsorb to surface oxides by H-bonding and metal ion coordination, and provides a solubility switch for mfps, most of which aggregate at pH ≥ 7-8.

Mussel (Mytilus californianus) adhesion to marine surfaces involves an intricate and adaptive synergy of molecules and spatio-temporal processes. Although the molecules, such as mussel foot proteins (mfps), are well characterized, deposition details remain vague and speculative. Developing methods for the precise surveillance of conditions that apply during mfp deposition would aid both in understanding mussel adhesion and translating this adhesion into useful technologies. To probe the interfacial pH at which mussels buffer the local environment during mfp deposition, a lipid bilayer with tethered pH-sensitive fluorochromes was assembled on mica. The interfacial pH during foot contact with modified mica ranged from 2.2 to 3.3, which is well below the seawater pH of ~ 8. The acidic pH serves multiple functions: it limits mfp-Dopa oxidation, thereby enabling the catecholic functionalities to adsorb to surface oxides by H-bonding and metal ion coordination, and provides a solubility switch for mfps, most of which aggregate at pH ≥ 7-8.

The lubricating and structural properties of different mammalian synovial fluids in thin films undergoing shear between two mica surfaces are studied in detail using a surface force apparatus (SFA). A 10-13 nm thick film of synovial components (proteins, lipids, and polymers) adsorbs on the mica surfaces in less than an hour of incubation time, and induces a strong repulsion between the surfaces that prevents them from coming into contact. Upon shearing, the structure of the confined synovial fluid changes dramatically when sheared above a "critical" shear rate of about 2 s-1 (corresponding to approximately 40 nm s-1). Above this critical shear rate and up to at least 70 μm s-1, the proteins and biopolymers in the fluid gradually aggregate to form a homogenous gel layer on each mica surface. As shearing continues, the gel layer gradually breaks up into discrete/individual gel particles that can roll in the contact keeping the sheared surfaces far apart even under high compressive loads (pressure P ≈ 20 MPa). These particles eventually become elongated and finally behave as roller bearings. This mechanism is consistently observed for three mammalian synovial fluids and two types of surfaces suggesting that it actually occurs in articular joints and prostetic implants in vivo. The implications of these findings for joints and prosthetic implants structure and lubrication are discussed; in particular the formation and function of the lamina splendens. Shear-induced aggregation of synovial fluid components is observed under boundary lubrication conditions. The aggregation process starts with the formation of a gel-like layer on the surfaces, which ultimately leads to the formation of rod-like aggregates. These aggregates provide enhanced wear protection and lubrication to the surfaces using rolling friction instead of pure sliding friction. This mechanism suggests new design criteria for future bioinspired lubricants. © 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

We review recent developments in experimental techniques that simultaneously combine measurements of the interaction forces or energies between two extended surfaces immersed in electrolyte solutions-primarily aqueous-with simultaneous monitoring of their (electro)chemical reactions and controlling the electrochemical surface potential of at least one of the surfaces. Combination of these complementary techniques allows for simultaneous real time monitoring of angstrom level changes in surface thickness and roughness, surface-surface interaction energies, and charge and mass transferred via electrochemical reactions, dissolution, and adsorption, and/or charging of electric double layers. These techniques employ the surface forces apparatus (SFA) combined with various "electrochemical attachments" for in situ measurements of various physical and (electro)chemical properties (e.g., cyclic voltammetry), optical imaging, and electric potentials and currents generated naturally during an interaction, as well as when electric fields (potential differences) are applied between the surfaces and/or solution-in some cases allowing for the chemical reaction equation to be unambiguously determined. We discuss how the physical interactions between two different surfaces when brought close to each other (

Geckos are highly efficient climbers and can run over any kind of surface with impeccable dexterity due to the typical design of their hierarchical foot structure. We have fabricated tilted, i.e., asymmetric, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microflaps of two different densities that mimic the function of the micrometer sized setae on the gecko foot pad. The adhesive properties of these microflaps were investigated in a modified surface forces apparatus; both for normal pure loading and unloading (detachment), as well as unloading after the surfaces were sheared, both along and against the tilt direction. The tilted microflaps showed directional, i.e., anisotropic adhesive behavior when sheared against an optically smooth (RMS roughness ≈ 10 ± 8 nm) SiO2 surface. Enhanced adhesion was measured after shearing the flaps along the tilted (gripping) direction and low adhesion when sheared against the tilted (releasing) direction. A Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JKR) theory using an effective surface energy and modulus of rigidity (stiffness) quantitatively described the contact mechanics of the tilted microflaps against the SiO2 surface. We also find an increasing adhesion and stick-slip of the surfaces during detachment which we explain qualitatively in terms of the density of flaps, considering it to increase from 0% (no flaps, smooth surface) to 100% (close-packed flaps, effectively smooth surface). Large energy dissipation at the PDMS-silica interface caused by the viscoelastic behavior of the polymer results in stick-slip peeling and hence an enhanced adhesion energy is observed during the separation of the microflaps surface from the smooth SiO2 surface after shearing of the surfaces. For structured multiple contact surfaces, hysteresis as manifested by different loading and unloading paths can be due entirely to the elastic JKR micro-contacts. These results have important implications in the design of biomimetic adhesives.

We review recent developments in experimental techniques that simultaneously combine measurements of the interaction forces or energies between two extended surfaces immersed in electrolyte solutions-primarily aqueous-with simultaneous monitoring of their (electro)chemical reactions and controlling the electrochemical surface potential of at least one of the surfaces. Combination of these complementary techniques allows for simultaneous real time monitoring of angstrom level changes in surface thickness and roughness, surface-surface interaction energies, and charge and mass transferred via electrochemical reactions, dissolution, and adsorption, and/or charging of electric double layers. These techniques employ the surface forces apparatus (SFA) combined with various "electrochemical attachments" for in situ measurements of various physical and (electro)chemical properties (e.g., cyclic voltammetry), optical imaging, and electric potentials and currents generated naturally during an interaction, as well as when electric fields (potential differences) are applied between the surfaces and/or solution-in some cases allowing for the chemical reaction equation to be unambiguously determined. We discuss how the physical interactions between two different surfaces when brought close to each other (

Geckos are highly efficient climbers and can run over any kind of surface with impeccable dexterity due to the typical design of their hierarchical foot structure. We have fabricated tilted, i.e., asymmetric, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microflaps of two different densities that mimic the function of the micrometer sized setae on the gecko foot pad. The adhesive properties of these microflaps were investigated in a modified surface forces apparatus; both for normal pure loading and unloading (detachment), as well as unloading after the surfaces were sheared, both along and against the tilt direction. The tilted microflaps showed directional, i.e., anisotropic adhesive behavior when sheared against an optically smooth (RMS roughness ≈ 10 ± 8 nm) SiO2 surface. Enhanced adhesion was measured after shearing the flaps along the tilted (gripping) direction and low adhesion when sheared against the tilted (releasing) direction. A Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JKR) theory using an effective surface energy and modulus of rigidity (stiffness) quantitatively described the contact mechanics of the tilted microflaps against the SiO2 surface. We also find an increasing adhesion and stick-slip of the surfaces during detachment which we explain qualitatively in terms of the density of flaps, considering it to increase from 0% (no flaps, smooth surface) to 100% (close-packed flaps, effectively smooth surface). Large energy dissipation at the PDMS-silica interface caused by the viscoelastic behavior of the polymer results in stick-slip peeling and hence an enhanced adhesion energy is observed during the separation of the microflaps surface from the smooth SiO2 surface after shearing of the surfaces. For structured multiple contact surfaces, hysteresis as manifested by different loading and unloading paths can be due entirely to the elastic JKR micro-contacts. These results have important implications in the design of biomimetic adhesives.

We have synthesized model hydrophobic silicone thin films on gold surfaces by a two-step covalent grafting procedure. An amino-functionalized gold surface reacts with monoepoxy-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) via a click reaction, resulting in a covalently attached nanoscale thin film of PDMS, and the click chemistry synthesis route provides great selectivity, reproducibility, and stability in the resulting model hydrophobic silicone thin films. The asymmetric interaction forces between the PDMS thin films and mica surfaces were measured with the surface forces apparatus in aqueous sodium chloride solutions. At an acidic pH of 3, attractive interactions are measured, resulting in instabilities during both approach (jump-in) and separation (jump-out from adhesive contact). Quantitative analysis of the results indicates that the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory alone, i.e., the combination of electrostatic repulsion and van der Waals attraction, cannot fully describe the measured forces and that the additional measured adhesion is likely due to hydrophobic interactions. The surface interactions are highly pH-dependent, and a basic pH of 10 results in fully repulsive interactions at all distances, due to repulsive electrostatic and steric-hydration interactions, indicating that the PDMS is negatively charged at high pH. We describe an interaction potential with a parameter, known as the Hydra parameter, that can account for the extra attraction (low pH) due to hydrophobicity as well as the extra repulsion (high pH) due to hydrophilic (steric-hydration) interactions. The interaction potential is general and provides a quantitative measure of interfacial hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity for any set of interacting surfaces in aqueous solution.

Mytilus foot protein type 6 (mfp-6) is crucial for maintaining the reducing conditions needed for optimal wet adhesion in marine mussels. In this report, we describe the expression and production of a recombinant Mytilus californianus foot protein type 6 variant 1 (rmfp-6.1) fused with a hexahistidine affinity tag in Escherichia coli and its purification by affinity chromatography. Recombinant mfp-6 showed high purification yields of 5-6 mg L(-1) cell culture and excellent solubility in low pH buffers that retard oxidation of its many thiol groups. Purified rmfp-6.1 protein showed high 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity when compared with vitamin C. Using the highly sensitive surface forces apparatus (SFA) technique to measure interfacial surface forces in the nano-Newton range, we show that rmfp-6.1 is also able to rescue the oxidation-dependent adhesion loss of mussel foot protein 3 (mfp-3) at pH 3. The adhesion rescue is related to a reduction of dopaquinone back to 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-l-alanine in mfp-3, which is the reverse reaction observed during the detrimental enzymatic browning process in fruits and vegetables. Broadly viewed, rmfp-6.1 has potential as a versatile antioxidant for applications ranging from personal products to antispoilants for perishable foods during processing and storage. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 29:1587-1593, 2013.

We have synthesized model hydrophobic silicone thin films on gold surfaces by a two-step covalent grafting procedure. An amino-functionalized gold surface reacts with monoepoxy-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) via a click reaction, resulting in a covalently attached nanoscale thin film of PDMS, and the click chemistry synthesis route provides great selectivity, reproducibility, and stability in the resulting model hydrophobic silicone thin films. The asymmetric interaction forces between the PDMS thin films and mica surfaces were measured with the surface forces apparatus in aqueous sodium chloride solutions. At an acidic pH of 3, attractive interactions are measured, resulting in instabilities during both approach (jump-in) and separation (jump-out from adhesive contact). Quantitative analysis of the results indicates that the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory alone, i.e., the combination of electrostatic repulsion and van der Waals attraction, cannot fully describe the measured forces and that the additional measured adhesion is likely due to hydrophobic interactions. The surface interactions are highly pH-dependent, and a basic pH of 10 results in fully repulsive interactions at all distances, due to repulsive electrostatic and steric-hydration interactions, indicating that the PDMS is negatively charged at high pH. We describe an interaction potential with a parameter, known as the Hydra parameter, that can account for the extra attraction (low pH) due to hydrophobicity as well as the extra repulsion (high pH) due to hydrophilic (steric-hydration) interactions. The interaction potential is general and provides a quantitative measure of interfacial hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity for any set of interacting surfaces in aqueous solution.

Mytilus foot protein type 6 (mfp-6) is crucial for maintaining the reducing conditions needed for optimal wet adhesion in marine mussels. In this report, we describe the expression and production of a recombinant Mytilus californianus foot protein type 6 variant 1 (rmfp-6.1) fused with a hexahistidine affinity tag in Escherichia coli and its purification by affinity chromatography. Recombinant mfp-6 showed high purification yields of 5-6 mg L(-1) cell culture and excellent solubility in low pH buffers that retard oxidation of its many thiol groups. Purified rmfp-6.1 protein showed high 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity when compared with vitamin C. Using the highly sensitive surface forces apparatus (SFA) technique to measure interfacial surface forces in the nano-Newton range, we show that rmfp-6.1 is also able to rescue the oxidation-dependent adhesion loss of mussel foot protein 3 (mfp-3) at pH 3. The adhesion rescue is related to a reduction of dopaquinone back to 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-l-alanine in mfp-3, which is the reverse reaction observed during the detrimental enzymatic browning process in fruits and vegetables. Broadly viewed, rmfp-6.1 has potential as a versatile antioxidant for applications ranging from personal products to antispoilants for perishable foods during processing and storage. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 29:1587-1593, 2013.

The adhesion of mussel foot proteins (Mfps) to a variety of specially engineered mineral and metal oxide surfaces has previously been investigated extensively, but the relevance of these studies to adhesion in biological environments remains unknown. Most solid surfaces exposed to seawater or physiological fluids become fouled by organic conditioning films and biofilms within minutes. Understanding the binding mechanisms of Mfps to organic films with known chemical and physical properties therefore is of considerable theoretical and practical interest. Using self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on atomically smooth gold substrates and the surface forces apparatus, we explored the force-distance profiles and adhesion energies of three different Mfps, Mfp-1, Mfp-3, and Mfp-5, on (i) hydrophobic methyl (CH3)- and (ii) hydrophilic alcohol (OH)-terminated SAM surfaces between pH 3 and pH 7.5. At acidic pH, all three Mfps adhered strongly to the CH3-terminated SAM surfaces via hydrophobic interactions (range of adhesive interaction energy = -4 to -9 mJ/m(2)) but only weakly to the OH-terminated SAM surfaces through H- bonding (adhesive interaction energy ≤ -0.5 mJ/m(2)). 3, 4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) residues in Mfps mediate binding to both SAM surface types but do so through different interactions: typical bidentate H-bonding by Dopa is frustrated by the longer spacing of OH-SAMs; in contrast, on CH3-SAMs, Dopa in synergy with other nonpolar residues partitions to the hydrophobic surface. Asymmetry in the distribution of hydrophobic residues in intrinsically unstructured proteins, the distortion of bond geometry between H-bonding surfaces, and the manipulation of physisorbed binding lifetimes represent important concepts for the design of adhesive and nonfouling surfaces.

The adhesion of mussel foot proteins (Mfps) to a variety of specially engineered mineral and metal oxide surfaces has previously been investigated extensively, but the relevance of these studies to adhesion in biological environments remains unknown. Most solid surfaces exposed to seawater or physiological fluids become fouled by organic conditioning films and biofilms within minutes. Understanding the binding mechanisms of Mfps to organic films with known chemical and physical properties therefore is of considerable theoretical and practical interest. Using self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on atomically smooth gold substrates and the surface forces apparatus, we explored the force-distance profiles and adhesion energies of three different Mfps, Mfp-1, Mfp-3, and Mfp-5, on (i) hydrophobic methyl (CH3)- and (ii) hydrophilic alcohol (OH)-terminated SAM surfaces between pH 3 and pH 7.5. At acidic pH, all three Mfps adhered strongly to the CH3-terminated SAM surfaces via hydrophobic interactions (range of adhesive interaction energy = -4 to -9 mJ/m(2)) but only weakly to the OH-terminated SAM surfaces through H- bonding (adhesive interaction energy ≤ -0.5 mJ/m(2)). 3, 4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) residues in Mfps mediate binding to both SAM surface types but do so through different interactions: typical bidentate H-bonding by Dopa is frustrated by the longer spacing of OH-SAMs; in contrast, on CH3-SAMs, Dopa in synergy with other nonpolar residues partitions to the hydrophobic surface. Asymmetry in the distribution of hydrophobic residues in intrinsically unstructured proteins, the distortion of bond geometry between H-bonding surfaces, and the manipulation of physisorbed binding lifetimes represent important concepts for the design of adhesive and nonfouling surfaces.

The interaction forces between bilayers of the cationic surfactant di(tallow ethyl ester)dimethyl ammonium chloride (DEEDMAC) were measured using a Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA) with and without an adsorbing polymer, polyacrylamide (PAM). In the absence of PAM, the forces measured between the bilayer surfaces were purely repulsive on approach and separation and is charge regulated. Addition of PAM induced structural changes to the bilayer interfaces, and resulted in the formation of bilayer-like patches of DEEDMAC decorated PAM (hydrated) on the mica surface. The interaction potential between these surfaces showed a modified DLVO interaction with an additional monotonic steric hydration repulsion on approach with an exponential force decay length of D steric ∼ 1 nm consistent with the measurements of hydration forces. On separating the surfaces, interdigitated polymers bridge between the two surfaces, resulting in a weak adhesion (adhesion energy, W0 ∼ 0.1 mJ m-2). Our results provide a picture of the complex molecular structure and interactions between uncharged adsorbing water soluble polymers and supported charged bilayers, and highlight the effects of adsorbing polymers on the structure of bilayers. Implications for the stability of vesicles in dispersions have been also discussed. © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013.