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While glucose-responsive insulin delivery systems are in widespread clinical use to treat insulin insufficiency, the on-demand supplementation of glucagon for acute hypoglycemia treatment remains understudied. A self-regulated glucagon release material is highly desired to mitigate the potential risks of severe insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Here, we describe a glucose-responsive polymeric nanosystem with glucagon covalently grafted to the end-group. Under normoglycemic conditions, phenylboronic acid units in the polymer chain reversibly bind glucose, triggering self-assembly of the conjugate into micelles. During hypoglycemia, however, the micelle disassembles into its original, unimeric state, revealing the active glucagon conjugate. The formulation showed a 5-fold increase in activity compared to native glucagon when tested in vitro. Glucagon-loaded micelles injected into mice prevented or reversed deep hypoglycemia when administered prior to or during an insulin challenge. Glucagon release was only observed at or below the counterregulatory threshold and not during normoglycemia or moderate hypoglycemia. The in vivo acute and chronic toxicity analysis, along with μPET/μCT imaging, established the biosafety profile of this formulation and demonstrated no organ accumulation. This proof-of-concept work is the first step toward development of a translational, stimuli-responsive glucagon delivery platform to control glycemia.

Myocardial infarction (MI) results in aberrant cardiac metabolism, but no therapeutics have been designed to target cardiac metabolism to enhance heart repair. We engineer a humanized monoclonal antibody against the ectonucleotidase ENPP1 (hENPP1mAb) that targets metabolic crosstalk in the infarcted heart. In mice expressing human ENPP1, systemic administration of hENPP1mAb metabolically reprograms myocytes and non-myocytes and leads to a significant rescue of post-MI heart dysfunction. Using metabolomics, single-nuclear transcriptomics, and cellular respiration studies, we show that the administration of the hENPP1mAb induces organ-wide metabolic and transcriptional reprogramming of the heart that enhances myocyte cellular respiration and decreases cell death and fibrosis in the infarcted heart. Biodistribution and safety studies showed specific organ-wide distribution with the antibody being well tolerated. In humanized animals, with drug clearance kinetics similar to humans, we demonstrate that a single "shot" of the hENPP1mAb after MI is sufficient to rescue cardiac dysfunction.

The radiometal gallium-68 (Ga-68) has garnered significant interest due to its convenient production via compact and widely available generators and the high performance of 68Ga-labeled compounds for positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging for cancer diagnosis and management of patients undergoing targeted radionuclide therapy. Given the short half life of Ga-68 (68 min), microfluidic-based radiosynthesis is a promising avenue to establish very rapid, efficient, and routine radiolabeling with Ga-68; however, the typical elution volume of Ga-68 from a generator (4-10 mL) is incompatible with the microliter reaction volumes of microfluidic devices. To bridge this gap, we developed a microscale cartridge-based approach to concentrate Ga-68. By optimizing cartridge design, resin type, resin mass, and eluent composition, Ga-68 was reliably concentrated from ~6 mL to ~80 µL with high recovery efficiency (>97%, n = 14). Furthermore, this method is suitable for both single- and dual-generator setups. To demonstrate suitability of the concentrated radiometal for radiolabeling, we performed microdroplet synthesis of [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11, achieving high radiochemical yield (83 ± 11%, n = 3), excellent radiochemical purity (>99%), and high apparent specific activity (255-320 MBq/μg). The entire process, including Ga-68 concentration, radiosynthesis, purification, and formulation, was completed in 12 min. Starting with activity of 0.81-0.84 GBq, 0.51-0.64 GBq of product was produced, sufficient for multiple patient doses. This work paves the way to clinical-scale production of other 68Ga-labeled compounds using droplet microreactor methods, or high-throughput labeling optimization or compound screening of 68Ga-labeled probes using droplet reaction arrays.

Copper-mediated radiofluorination has demonstrated remarkable potential in forming aromatic C-18F bonds of radioligands for positron emission tomography (PET). Achieving optimal results often requires optimization efforts, requiring a substantial amount of radiolabeling precursor and time, severely limiting the experimental throughput. Recently, we successfully showcased the feasibility of performing and optimizing Cu-mediated radiosynthesis on a high-throughput microdroplet platform using the well-known and clinically used radioligand [18F]FDOPA as an illustrative example. In our current work, we optimized the Cu-mediated synthesis of a novel monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) PET tracer ([18F]YH149), showing the versatility of droplet-based techniques for early stage tracer development. Across 5 days, we conducted a total of 117 experiments, studying 36 distinct conditions, while utilizing

The growing discovery and development of novel radiopharmaceuticals and radiolabeling methods requires an increasing capacity for radiochemistry experiments. However, such studies typically rely on radiosynthesizers designed for clinical batch production rather than research, greatly limiting throughput. Two general solutions are being pursued to address this: developing new synthesis optimization algorithms to minimize how many experiments are needed, and developing apparatus with enhanced experiment throughput. We describe here a novel high-throughput system based on performing arrays of droplet-based reactions at 10 μL volume scale in parallel. The automatic robotic platform can perform a set of 64 experiments in ~3 h (from isotope loading to crude product, plus sampling onto TLC plates), plus ~1 h for off-line radio-TLC analysis and radioactivity measurements, rather than the weeks or months that would be needed using a conventional system. We show the high repeatability and low crosstalk of the platform and demonstrate optimization studies for two 18F-labeled tracers. This novel automated platform greatly increases the practicality of performing arrays of droplet reactions by eliminating human error, vastly reducing tedium and fatigue, minimizing radiation exposure, and freeing up radiochemist time for other intellectually valuable pursuits.

The list of new positron-emission tomography (PET) tracers has rapidly grown in the past decade, following discoveries of new biological targets and therapeutic strategies, with several compounds garnering recent regulatory approval for clinical use. During the development of synthesis methods and production of new tracers for imaging, analytical methods for radio-high performance liquid chromatography (radio-HPLC) and radio-thin layer chromatography (radio-TLC) separations need to be developed to assess radiochemical compositions. Radio-TLC is often faster, simpler, and sometimes more accurate than radio-HPLC (as there is no underestimation of [18F]fluoride when analyzing 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals). Many protocols have been developed for separating 18F-radiopharmaceuticals on silica TLC plates, typically with [18F]fluoride retained at the origin and the radiopharmaceutical (and impurities) migrating along the plate. Interestingly, many reports describe the use of aqueous conditions to mobilize polar species, but it is known that aqueous conditions can modify silica and alter its chromatographic behavior. In this technical note, we explore the effects that aqueous conditions have on the analysis of 18F-radiopharmaceutical mixtures, revealing that with sufficient water, the radionuclide ([18F]fluoride) can migrate away from the origin and can be split into multiple bands. Furthermore, water can hinder the migration of the radiopharmaceutical. These effects can lead to overlapped bands or reversal of the normally expected order of bands, potentially leading to the misinterpretation of results if care is not taken to validate the TLC method carefully.

Radiopharmaceutical analysis is limited by conventional methods. Radio-HPLC may be inaccurate for some compounds (e.g., 18F-radiopharmaceuticals) due to radionuclide sequester. Radio-TLC is simpler, faster, and detects all species but has limited resolution. Imaging-based readout of TLC plates (e.g., using Cerenkov luminescence imaging) can improve readout resolution, but the underlying chromatographic separation efficiency may be insufficient to resolve chemically similar species such as product and precursor-derived impurities. This study applies a systematic mobile phase optimization method, PRISMA, to improve radio-TLC resolution. The PRISMA method optimizes the mobile phase by selecting the correct solvent, optimizing solvent polarity, and optimizing composition. Without prior knowledge of impurities and by simply observing the separation resolution between a radiopharmaceutical and its nearest radioactive or non-radioactive impurities (observed via UV imaging) for different mobile phases, the PRISMA method enabled the development of high-resolution separation conditions for a wide range of 18F-radiopharmaceuticals ( [18F]PBR-06, [18F]FEPPA, [18F]Fallypride, [18F]FPEB, and [18F]FDOPA). Each optimization required a single batch of crude radiopharmaceutical and a few hours. Interestingly, the optimized TLC method provided greater accuracy (compared to other published TLC methods) in determining the product abundance of one radiopharmaceutical studied in more depth ( [18F]Fallypride) and was capable of resolving a comparable number of species as isocratic radio-HPLC. We used the PRISMA-optimized mobile phase for [18F]FPEB in combination with multi-lane radio-TLC techniques to evaluate reaction performance during high-throughput synthesis optimization of [18F]FPEB. The PRISMA methodology, in combination with high-resolution radio-TLC readout, enables a rapid and systematic approach to achieving high-resolution and accurate analysis of radiopharmaceuticals without the need for radio-HPLC.

Before formulating radiopharmaceuticals for injection, it is necessary to remove various impurities via purification. Conventional synthesis methods involve relatively large quantities of reagents, requiring high-resolution and high-capacity chromatographic methods (e.g., semi-preparative radio-HPLC) to ensure adequate purity of the radiopharmaceutical. Due to the use of organic solvents during purification, additional processing is needed to reformulate the radiopharmaceutical into an injectable buffer. Recent developments in microscale radiosynthesis have made it possible to synthesize radiopharmaceuticals with vastly reduced reagent masses, minimizing impurities. This enables purification with lower-capacity methods, such as analytical HPLC, with a reduction of purification time and volume (that shortens downstream re-formulation). Still, the need for a bulky and expensive HPLC system undermines many of the advantages of microfluidics. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using radio-TLC for the purification of radiopharmaceuticals. This technique combines high-performance (high-resolution, high-speed separation) with the advantages of a compact and low-cost setup. A further advantage is that no downstream re-formulation step is needed. Production and purification of clinical scale batches of [18F]PBR-06 and [18F]Fallypride are demonstrated with high yield, purity, and specific activity. Automating this radio-TLC method could provide an attractive solution for the purification step in microscale radiochemistry systems.

The increasing number of positron-emission tomography (PET) tracers being developed to aid drug development and create new diagnostics has led to an increased need for radiosynthesis development and optimization. Current radiosynthesis instruments are designed to produce large-scale clinical batches and are often limited to performing a single synthesis before they must be decontaminated by waiting for radionuclide decay, followed by thorough cleaning or disposal of synthesizer components. Though with some radiosynthesizers it is possible to perform a few sequential radiosyntheses in a day, none allow for parallel radiosyntheses. Throughput of one or a few experiments per day is not well suited for rapid optimization experiments. To combat these limitations, we leverage the advantages of droplet-radiochemistry to create a new platform for high-throughput experimentation in radiochemistry. This system contains an array of 4 heaters, each used to heat a set of 16 reactions on a small chip, enabling 64 parallel reactions for the rapid optimization of conditions in any stage of a multi-step radiosynthesis process. As examples, we study the syntheses of several 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals ([18F]Flumazenil, [18F]PBR06, [18F]Fallypride, and [18F]FEPPA), performing > 800 experiments to explore the influence of parameters including base type, base amount, precursor amount, solvent, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The experiments were carried out within only 15 experiment days, and the small volume (~ 10 μL compared to the ~ 1 mL scale of conventional instruments) consumed ~ 100 × less precursor per datapoint. This new method paves the way for more comprehensive optimization studies in radiochemistry and substantially shortening PET tracer development timelines.

Current equipment and methods for preparation of radiopharmaceuticals for positron emission tomography (PET) are expensive and best suited for large-scale multi-doses batches. Microfluidic radiosynthesizers have been shown to provide an economic approach to synthesize these compounds in smaller quantities, but can also be scaled to clinically-relevant levels. Batch microfluidic approaches, in particular, offer significant reduction in system size and reagent consumption. Here we show a simple and rapid technique to concentrate the radioisotope, prior to synthesis in a droplet-based radiosynthesizer, enabling production of clinically-relevant batches of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB. The synthesis was carried out with an automated synthesizer platform based on a disposable Teflon-silicon surface-tension trap chip. Up to 0.1 mL (4 GBq) of radioactivity was used per synthesis by drying cyclotron-produced aqueous [18F]fluoride in small increments directly inside the reaction site. Precursor solution (10 µL) was added to the dried [18F]fluoride, the reaction chip was heated for 5 min to perform radiofluorination, and then a deprotection step was performed with addition of acid solution and heating. The product was recovered in 80 µL volume and transferred to analytical HPLC for purification. Purified product was formulated via evaporation and resuspension or a micro-SPE formulation system. Quality control testing was performed on 3 sequential batches of each tracer. The method afforded production of up to 0.8 GBq of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB. Each production was completed within an hour. All batches passed quality control testing, confirming suitability for human use. In summary, we present a simple and efficient synthesis of clinically-relevant batches of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB using a microfluidic radiosynthesizer. This work demonstrates that the droplet-based micro-radiosynthesizer has a potential for batch-on-demand synthesis of 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals for human use.

Over the past several years there has been an explosion of interest in exploiting Cerenkov radiation to enable in vivo and intraoperative optical imaging of subjects injected with trace amounts of radiopharmaceuticals. At the same time, Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) also has been serving as a critical tool in radiochemistry, especially for the development of novel microfluidic devices for producing radiopharmaceuticals. By enabling microfluidic processes to be monitored non-destructively in situ, CLI has made it possible to literally watch the activity distribution as the synthesis occurs, and to quantitatively measure activity propagation and losses at each step of synthesis, paving the way for significant strides forward in performance and robustness of those devices. In some cases, CLI has enabled detection and resolution of unexpected problems not observable via standard optical methods. CLI is also being used in analytical radiochemistry to increase the reliability of radio-thin layer chromatography (radio-TLC) assays. Rapid and high-resolution Cerenkov imaging of radio-TLC plates enables detection of issues in the spotting or separation process, improves chromatographic resolution (and/or allows reduced separation distance and time), and enables increased throughput by allowing multiple samples to be spotted side-by-side on a single TLC plate for parallel separation and readout. In combination with new multi-reaction microfluidic chips, this is creating a new possibility for high-throughput optimization in radiochemistry. In this mini review, we provide an overview of the role that CLI has played to date in the radiochemistry side of radiopharmaceuticals.

Current automated radiosynthesizers are designed to produce large clinical batches of radiopharmaceuticals. They are not well suited for reaction optimization or novel radiopharmaceutical development since each data point involves significant reagent consumption, and contamination of the apparatus requires time for radioactive decay before the next use. To address these limitations, a platform for performing arrays of miniature droplet-based reactions in parallel, each confined within a surface-tension trap on a patterned polytetrafluoroethylene-coated silicon "chip", was developed. These chips enable rapid and convenient studies of reaction parameters including reagent concentrations, reaction solvent, reaction temperature and time. This platform permits the completion of hundreds of reactions in a few days with minimal reagent consumption, instead of taking months using a conventional radiosynthesizer.

Current equipment and methods for preparation of radiopharmaceuticals for positron emission tomography (PET) are expensive and best suited for large-scale multi-doses batches. Microfluidic radiosynthesizers have been shown to provide an economic approach to synthesize these compounds in smaller quantities, but can also be scaled to clinically-relevant levels. Batch microfluidic approaches, in particular, offer significant reduction in system size and reagent consumption. Here we show a simple and rapid technique to concentrate the radioisotope, prior to synthesis in a droplet-based radiosynthesizer, enabling production of clinically-relevant batches of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB. The synthesis was carried out with an automated synthesizer platform based on a disposable Teflon-silicon surface-tension trap chip. Up to 0.1 mL (4 GBq) of radioactivity was used per synthesis by drying cyclotron-produced aqueous [18F]fluoride in small increments directly inside the reaction site. Precursor solution (10 µL) was added to the dried [18F]fluoride, the reaction chip was heated for 5 min to perform radiofluorination, and then a deprotection step was performed with addition of acid solution and heating. The product was recovered in 80 µL volume and transferred to analytical HPLC for purification. Purified product was formulated via evaporation and resuspension or a micro-SPE formulation system. Quality control testing was performed on 3 sequential batches of each tracer. The method afforded production of up to 0.8 GBq of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB. Each production was completed within an hour. All batches passed quality control testing, confirming suitability for human use. In summary, we present a simple and efficient synthesis of clinically-relevant batches of [18F]FET and [18F]FBB using a microfluidic radiosynthesizer. This work demonstrates that the droplet-based micro-radiosynthesizer has a potential for batch-on-demand synthesis of 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals for human use.

BackgroundCurrent automated radiosynthesizers are generally optimized for producing large batches of PET tracers. Preclinical imaging studies, however, often require only a small portion of a regular batch, which cannot be economically produced on a conventional synthesizer. Alternative approaches are desired to produce small to moderate batches to reduce cost and the amount of reagents and radioisotope needed to produce PET tracers with high molar activity. In this work we describe the first reported microvolume method for production of [18F]Florbetaben for use in imaging of Alzheimer's disease.ProceduresThe microscale synthesis of [18F]Florbetaben was adapted from conventional-scale synthesis methods. Aqueous [18F]fluoride was azeotropically dried with K2CO3/K222 (275/383 nmol) complex prior to radiofluorination of the Boc-protected precursor (80 nmol) in 10 μL DMSO at 130 °C for 5 min. The resulting intermediate was deprotected with HCl at 90 °C for 3 min and recovered from the chip in aqueous acetonitrile solution. The crude product was purified via analytical scale HPLC and the collected fraction reformulated via solid-phase extraction using a miniature C18 cartridge.ResultsStarting with 270 ± 100 MBq (n = 3) of [18F]Fluoride, the method affords formulated product with 49 ± 3% (decay-corrected) yield,> 98% radiochemical purity and a molar activity of 338 ± 55 GBq/μmol. The miniature C18 cartridge enables efficient elution with only 150 μL of ethanol which is diluted to a final volume of 1.0 mL, thus providing a sufficient concentration for in vivo imaging. The whole procedure can be completed in 55 min.ConclusionsThis work describes an efficient and reliable procedure to produce [18F]Florbetaben in quantities sufficient for large-scale preclinical applications. This method provides very high yields and molar activities compared to reported literature methods. This method can be applied to higher starting activities with special consideration given to automation and radiolysis prevention.

BackgroundConventional scale production of small batches of PET tracers (e.g. for preclinical imaging) is an inefficient use of resources. Using O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine ([18F]FET), we demonstrate that simple microvolume radiosynthesis techniques can improve the efficiency of production by consuming tiny amounts of precursor, and maintaining high molar activity of the tracers even with low starting activity.ProceduresThe synthesis was carried out in microvolume droplets manipulated on a disposable patterned silicon "chip" affixed to a heater. A droplet of [18F]fluoride containing TBAHCO3 was first deposited onto a chip and dried at 100 °C. Subsequently, a droplet containing 60 nmol of precursor was added to the chip and the fluorination reaction was performed at 90 °C for 5 min. Removal of protecting groups was accomplished with a droplet of HCl heated at 90 °C for 3 min. Finally, the crude product was collected in a methanol-water mixture, purified via analytical-scale radio-HPLC and formulated in saline. As a demonstration, using [18F]FET produced on the chip, we prepared aliquots with different molar activities to explore the impact on preclinical PET imaging of tumor-bearing mice.ResultsThe microdroplet synthesis exhibited an overall decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 55 ± 7% (n = 4) after purification and formulation. When automated, the synthesis could be completed in 35 min. Starting with

BackgroundCurrent automated radiosynthesizers are generally optimized for producing large batches of PET tracers. Preclinical imaging studies, however, often require only a small portion of a regular batch, which cannot be economically produced on a conventional synthesizer. Alternative approaches are desired to produce small to moderate batches to reduce cost and the amount of reagents and radioisotope needed to produce PET tracers with high molar activity. In this work we describe the first reported microvolume method for production of [18F]Florbetaben for use in imaging of Alzheimer's disease.ProceduresThe microscale synthesis of [18F]Florbetaben was adapted from conventional-scale synthesis methods. Aqueous [18F]fluoride was azeotropically dried with K2CO3/K222 (275/383 nmol) complex prior to radiofluorination of the Boc-protected precursor (80 nmol) in 10 μL DMSO at 130 °C for 5 min. The resulting intermediate was deprotected with HCl at 90 °C for 3 min and recovered from the chip in aqueous acetonitrile solution. The crude product was purified via analytical scale HPLC and the collected fraction reformulated via solid-phase extraction using a miniature C18 cartridge.ResultsStarting with 270 ± 100 MBq (n = 3) of [18F]Fluoride, the method affords formulated product with 49 ± 3% (decay-corrected) yield,> 98% radiochemical purity and a molar activity of 338 ± 55 GBq/μmol. The miniature C18 cartridge enables efficient elution with only 150 μL of ethanol which is diluted to a final volume of 1.0 mL, thus providing a sufficient concentration for in vivo imaging. The whole procedure can be completed in 55 min.ConclusionsThis work describes an efficient and reliable procedure to produce [18F]Florbetaben in quantities sufficient for large-scale preclinical applications. This method provides very high yields and molar activities compared to reported literature methods. This method can be applied to higher starting activities with special consideration given to automation and radiolysis prevention.

IntroductionRadio thin layer chromatography (radio-TLC) is commonly used to analyze purity of radiopharmaceuticals or to determine the reaction conversion when optimizing radiosynthesis processes. In applications where there are few radioactive species, radio-TLC is preferred over radio-high-performance liquid chromatography due to its simplicity and relatively quick analysis time. However, with current radio-TLC methods, it remains cumbersome to analyze a large number of samples during reaction optimization. In a couple of studies, Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) has been used for reading radio-TLC plates spotted with a variety of isotopes. We show that this approach can be extended to develop a high-throughput approach for radio-TLC analysis of many samples.MethodsThe high-throughput radio-TLC analysis was carried out by performing parallel development of multiple radioactive samples spotted on a single TLC plate, followed by simultaneous readout of the separated samples using Cerenkov imaging. Using custom-written MATLAB software, images were processed and regions of interest (ROIs) were drawn to enclose the radioactive regions/spots. For each sample, the proportion of integrated signal in each ROI was computed. Various crude samples of [18F]fallypride, [18F]FET and [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 were prepared for demonstration of this new method.ResultsBenefiting from a parallel developing process and high resolution of CLI-based readout, total analysis time for eight [18F]fallypride samples was 7.5 min (2.5 min for parallel developing, 5 min for parallel readout), which was significantly shorter than the 48 min needed using conventional approaches (24 min for sequential developing, 24 min for sequential readout on a radio-TLC scanner). The greater separation resolution of CLI enabled the discovery of a low-abundance side product from a crude [18F]FET sample that was not discernable using the radio-TLC scanner. Using the CLI-based readout method, we also observed that high labeling efficiency (99%) of [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 can be achieved in just 10 min, rather than the typical 30 min timeframe used.ConclusionsCerenkov imaging in combination with parallel developing of multiple samples on a single TLC plate proved to be a practical method for rapid, high-throughput radio-TLC analysis.

Microfluidics offers numerous advantages for the synthesis of short-lived radiolabeled imaging tracers: performing 18F-radiosyntheses in microliter-scale droplets has exhibited high efficiency, speed, and molar activity as well as low reagent consumption. However, most reports have been at the preclinical scale. In this study we integrate a [18F]fluoride concentrator and a microdroplet synthesizer to explore the possibility of synthesizing patient doses and multi-patient batches of clinically-acceptable tracers. In the integrated system, [18F]fluoride (up to 41 GBq [1.1 Ci]) in [18O]H2O (1 mL) was first concentrated ∼80-fold and then efficiently transferred to the 8 μL reaction chip as a series of small (∼0.5 μL) droplets. Each droplet rapidly dried at the reaction site of the pre-heated chip, resulting in localized accumulation of large amounts of radioactivity in the form of dried [18F]TBAF complex. The PET tracer [18F]fallypride was synthesized from this concentrated activity in an overall synthesis time of ∼50 min (including radioisotope concentration and transfer, droplet radiosynthesis, purification, and formulation), in amounts up to 7.2 GBq [0.19 Ci], sufficient for multiple clinical PET scans. The resulting batches of [18F]fallypride passed all QC tests needed to ensure safety for clinical injection. This integrated technology enabled for the first time the impact of a wide range of activity levels on droplet radiosynthesis to be studied. Furthermore, this substantial increase in scale expands the applications of droplet radiosynthesis to the production of clinically-relevant amounts of radiopharmaceuticals, and potentially even centralized production of clinical tracers in radiopharmacies. The overall system could be applied to fundamental studies of droplet-based radiochemical reactions, or to the production of radiopharmaceuticals labeled with a variety of isotopes used for imaging and/or targeted radiotherapeutics.

For decades, there has been immense progress in miniaturizing analytical methods based on electrophoresis to improve sensitivity and to reduce sample volumes, separation times, and/or equipment cost and space requirements, in applications ranging from analysis of biological samples to environmental analysis to forensics. In the field of radiochemistry, where radiation-shielded laboratory space is limited, there has been great interest in harnessing the compactness, high efficiency, and speed of microfluidics to synthesize short-lived radiolabeled compounds. We recently proposed that analysis of these compounds could also benefit from miniaturization and have been investigating capillary electrophoresis (CE) and hybrid microchip electrophoresis (hybrid-MCE) as alternatives to the typically used high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We previously showed separation of the positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging tracer 3'-deoxy-3'-fluorothymidine (FLT) from its impurities in a hybrid-MCE device with UV detection, with similar separation performance to HPLC, but with improved speed and lower sample volumes. In this paper, we have developed an integrated radiation detector to enable measurement of the emitted radiation from radiolabeled compounds. Though conventional radiation detectors have been incorporated into CE systems in the past, these approaches cannot be readily integrated into a compact hybrid-MCE device. We instead employed a solid-state avalanche photodiode (APD)-based detector for real-time, high-sensitivity β particle detection. The integrated system can reliably separate [18F]FLT from its impurities and perform chemical identification via coinjection with nonradioactive reference standard. This system can quantitate samples with radioactivity concentrations as low as 114 MBq/mL (3.1 mCi/mL), which is sufficient for analysis of radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals.

For decades, there has been immense progress in miniaturizing analytical methods based on electrophoresis to improve sensitivity and to reduce sample volumes, separation times, and/or equipment cost and space requirements, in applications ranging from analysis of biological samples to environmental analysis to forensics. In the field of radiochemistry, where radiation-shielded laboratory space is limited, there has been great interest in harnessing the compactness, high efficiency, and speed of microfluidics to synthesize short-lived radiolabeled compounds. We recently proposed that analysis of these compounds could also benefit from miniaturization and have been investigating capillary electrophoresis (CE) and hybrid microchip electrophoresis (hybrid-MCE) as alternatives to the typically used high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We previously showed separation of the positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging tracer 3'-deoxy-3'-fluorothymidine (FLT) from its impurities in a hybrid-MCE device with UV detection, with similar separation performance to HPLC, but with improved speed and lower sample volumes. In this paper, we have developed an integrated radiation detector to enable measurement of the emitted radiation from radiolabeled compounds. Though conventional radiation detectors have been incorporated into CE systems in the past, these approaches cannot be readily integrated into a compact hybrid-MCE device. We instead employed a solid-state avalanche photodiode (APD)-based detector for real-time, high-sensitivity β particle detection. The integrated system can reliably separate [18F]FLT from its impurities and perform chemical identification via coinjection with nonradioactive reference standard. This system can quantitate samples with radioactivity concentrations as low as 114 MBq/mL (3.1 mCi/mL), which is sufficient for analysis of radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals.

From an efficiency standpoint, microdroplet reactors enable significant improvements in the preparation of radiopharmaceuticals due to the vastly reduced reaction volume. To demonstrate these advantages, we adapt the conventional (macroscale) synthesis of the clinically-important positron-emission tomography tracer [18F]FDOPA, following the nucleophilic diaryliodonium salt approach, to a newly-developed ultra-compact microdroplet reaction platform. In this first microfluidic implementation of [18F]FDOPA synthesis, optimized via a high-throughput multi-reaction platform, the radiochemical yield (non-decay-corrected) was found to be comparable to macroscale reports, but the synthesis consumed significantly less precursor and organic solvents, and the synthesis process was much faster. In this initial report, we demonstrate the production of [18F]FDOPA in 15 MBq [400 μCi] amounts, sufficient for imaging of multiple mice, at high molar activity.

New platforms are enabling radiochemistry to be carried out in tiny, microliter-scale volumes, and this capability has enormous benefits for the production of radiopharmaceuticals. These droplet-based technologies can achieve comparable or better yields compared to conventional methods, but with vastly reduced reagent consumption, shorter synthesis time, higher molar activity (even for low activity batches), faster purification, and ultra-compact system size. We review here the state of the art of this emerging direction, summarize the radiotracers and prosthetic groups that have been synthesized in droplet format, describe recent achievements in scaling up activity levels, and discuss advantages and limitations and the future outlook of these innovative devices.

New platforms are enabling radiochemistry to be carried out in tiny, microliter-scale volumes, and this capability has enormous benefits for the production of radiopharmaceuticals. These droplet-based technologies can achieve comparable or better yields compared to conventional methods, but with vastly reduced reagent consumption, shorter synthesis time, higher molar activity (even for low activity batches), faster purification, and ultra-compact system size. We review here the state of the art of this emerging direction, summarize the radiotracers and prosthetic groups that have been synthesized in droplet format, describe recent achievements in scaling up activity levels, and discuss advantages and limitations and the future outlook of these innovative devices.

BackgroundConventional scale production of small batches of PET tracers (e.g. for preclinical imaging) is an inefficient use of resources. Using O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine ([18F]FET), we demonstrate that simple microvolume radiosynthesis techniques can improve the efficiency of production by consuming tiny amounts of precursor, and maintaining high molar activity of the tracers even with low starting activity.ProceduresThe synthesis was carried out in microvolume droplets manipulated on a disposable patterned silicon "chip" affixed to a heater. A droplet of [18F]fluoride containing TBAHCO3 was first deposited onto a chip and dried at 100 °C. Subsequently, a droplet containing 60 nmol of precursor was added to the chip and the fluorination reaction was performed at 90 °C for 5 min. Removal of protecting groups was accomplished with a droplet of HCl heated at 90 °C for 3 min. Finally, the crude product was collected in a methanol-water mixture, purified via analytical-scale radio-HPLC and formulated in saline. As a demonstration, using [18F]FET produced on the chip, we prepared aliquots with different molar activities to explore the impact on preclinical PET imaging of tumor-bearing mice.ResultsThe microdroplet synthesis exhibited an overall decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 55 ± 7% (n = 4) after purification and formulation. When automated, the synthesis could be completed in 35 min. Starting with

An all-electronic, droplet-based batch microfluidic device, operated using the electrowetting on dielectric (EWOD) mechanism was developed for on-demand synthesis of N-succinimidyl-4-[18F]fluorobenzoate ([18F]SFB), the most commonly used 18F-prosthetic group for biomolecule labeling. In order to facilitate the development of peptides, and proteins as new diagnostic and therapeutic agents, we have diversified the compact EWOD microfluidic platform to perform the three-step radiosynthesis of [18F]SFB starting from the no carrier added [18F]fluoride ion. In this report, we established an optimal microliter droplet reaction condition to obtain reliable yields and synthesized [18F]SFB with sufficient radioactivity for subsequent conjugation to the anti-PSCA cys-diabody (A2cDb) and for small animal imaging. The three-step, one-pot radiosynthesis of [18F]SFB radiochemistry was adapted to a batch microfluidic platform with a reaction droplet sandwiched between two parallel plates of an EWOD chip, and optimized. Specifically, the ratio of precursor to base, droplet volume, reagent concentration, reaction time, and evaporation time were found be to be critical parameters. [18F]SFB was successfully synthesized on the EWOD chip in 39 ± 7% (n = 4) radiochemical yield in a total synthesis time of ∼120 min ([18F]fluoride activation, [18F]fluorination, hydrolysis, and coupling reaction, HPLC purification, drying and reformulation). The reformulation and stabilization step for [18F]SFB was important to obtain a high protein labeling efficiency of 33.1 ± 12.5% (n = 3). A small-animal immunoPET pilot study demonstrated that the [18F]SFB-PSCA diabody conjugate showed specific uptake in the PSCA-positive human prostate cancer xenograft. The successful development of a compact footprint of the EWOD radiosynthesizer has the potential to empower biologists to produce PET probes of interest themselves in a standard laboratory.

The ability to manipulate droplets on a substrate using electric signals1-known as digital microfluidics-is used in optical2,3, biomedical4,5, thermal6 and electronic7 applications and has led to commercially available liquid lenses8 and diagnostics kits9,10. Such electrical actuation is mainly achieved by electrowetting, with droplets attracted towards and spreading on a conductive substrate in response to an applied voltage. To ensure strong and practical actuation, the substrate is covered with a dielectric layer and a hydrophobic topcoat for electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD)11-13; this increases the actuation voltage (to about 100 volts) and can compromise reliability owing to dielectric breakdown14, electric charging15 and biofouling16. Here we demonstrate droplet manipulation that uses electrical signals to induce the liquid to dewet, rather than wet, a hydrophilic conductive substrate without the need for added layers. In this electrodewetting mechanism, which is phenomenologically opposite to electrowetting, the liquid-substrate interaction is not controlled directly by electric field but instead by field-induced attachment and detachment of ionic surfactants to the substrate. We show that this actuation mechanism can perform all the basic fluidic operations of digital microfluidics using water on doped silicon wafers in air, with only ±2.5 volts of driving voltage, a few microamperes of current and about 0.015 times the critical micelle concentration of an ionic surfactant. The system can also handle common buffers and organic solvents, promising a simple and reliable microfluidic platform for a broad range of applications.

Application of microfluidics offers numerous advantages in the field of radiochemistry and could enable dramatic reductions in the cost of producing radiotracers for positron emission tomography (PET). Droplet-based microfluidics, in particular, requires only microgram quantities of expensive precursors and reagents (compared to milligram used in conventional radiochemistry systems), and occupies a more compact footprint (potentially eliminating the need for specialized shielding facilities, i.e. hot cells). However, the reported platforms for droplet radiosynthesis have several drawbacks, including high cost/complexity of microfluidic reactors, requirement for manual intervention (e.g. for adding reagents), or difficulty in precise control of droplet processes. We describe here a platform based on a particularly simple chip, where reactions take place atop a hydrophobic substrate patterned with a circular hydrophilic liquid trap. The overall supporting hardware (heater, rotating carousel of reagent dispensers, etc.) is very simple and the whole system could be packaged into a very compact format (about the size of a coffee cup). We demonstrate the consistent synthesis of [18F]fallypride with high yield, and show that protocols optimized using a high-throughput optimization platform we have developed can be readily translated to this device with no changes or re-optimization. We are currently exploring the use of this platform for routine production of a variety of 18F-labeled tracers for preclinical imaging and for production of tracers in clinically-relevant amounts by integrating the system with an upstream radionuclide concentrator.

During the development of novel tracers for positron emission tomography (PET), the optimization of the synthesis is hindered by practical limitations on the number of experiments that can be performed per day. Here we present a microliter droplet chip that contains multiple sites (4 or 16) to perform reactions simultaneously under the same or different conditions to accelerate radiosynthesis optimization.

PurposeMetabolic imaging using [18F]FDG is the current standard for clinical PET; however, some malignancies (e.g., indolent lymphomas) show low avidity for FDG. The majority of B cell lymphomas express CD20, making it a valuable target both for antibody-based therapy and imaging. We previously developed PET tracers based on the humanised anti-CD20 antibody obinutuzumab (GA101). Preclinical studies showed that the smallest bivalent fragment, the cys-diabody (GAcDb, 54.5 kDa) with a peak uptake at 1-2 h post-injection and a biological half-life of 2-5 h, is compatible with short-lived positron emitters such as fluorine-18 (18F, t1/2 110 min), enabling same-day imaging.MethodsGAcDb was radiolabeled using amine-reactive N-succinimidyl 4-[18F]-fluorobenzoate ([18F]SFB), or thiol-reactive N-[2-(4-[18F]-fluorobenzamido)ethyl]maleimide ([18F]FBEM) for site-specific conjugation to C-terminal cysteine residues. Both tracers were used for immunoPET imaging of the B cell compartment in human CD20 transgenic mice (hCD20TM). [18F]FB-GAcDb immunoPET was further evaluated in a disseminated lymphoma (A20-hCD20) syngeneic for hCD20TM and compared to [18F]FDG PET. Tracer uptake was confirmed by ex vivo biodistribution.ResultsThe GAcDb was successfully 18F-radiolabeled using two different conjugation methods resulting in similar specific activities and without impairing immunoreactivity. Both tracers ([18F]FB-GAcDb and [18F]FBEM-GAcDb) specifically target human CD20-expressing B cells in transgenic mice. Fast blood clearance results in high contrast PET images as early as 1 h post injection enabling same-day imaging. [18F]FB-GAcDb immunoPET detects disseminated lymphoma disease in the context of normal tissue expression of hCD20, with comparable sensitivity as [18F]FDG PET but with added specificity for the therapeutic target.Conclusions[18F]FB-GAcDb and [18F]FBEM-GAcDb could monitor normal B cells and B cell malignancies non-invasively and quantitatively in vivo. In contrast to [18F]FDG PET, immunoPET provides not only information about the extent of disease but also about presence and localisation of the therapeutic target.

PurposeMetabolic imaging using [18F]FDG is the current standard for clinical PET; however, some malignancies (e.g., indolent lymphomas) show low avidity for FDG. The majority of B cell lymphomas express CD20, making it a valuable target both for antibody-based therapy and imaging. We previously developed PET tracers based on the humanised anti-CD20 antibody obinutuzumab (GA101). Preclinical studies showed that the smallest bivalent fragment, the cys-diabody (GAcDb, 54.5 kDa) with a peak uptake at 1-2 h post-injection and a biological half-life of 2-5 h, is compatible with short-lived positron emitters such as fluorine-18 (18F, t1/2 110 min), enabling same-day imaging.MethodsGAcDb was radiolabeled using amine-reactive N-succinimidyl 4-[18F]-fluorobenzoate ([18F]SFB), or thiol-reactive N-[2-(4-[18F]-fluorobenzamido)ethyl]maleimide ([18F]FBEM) for site-specific conjugation to C-terminal cysteine residues. Both tracers were used for immunoPET imaging of the B cell compartment in human CD20 transgenic mice (hCD20TM). [18F]FB-GAcDb immunoPET was further evaluated in a disseminated lymphoma (A20-hCD20) syngeneic for hCD20TM and compared to [18F]FDG PET. Tracer uptake was confirmed by ex vivo biodistribution.ResultsThe GAcDb was successfully 18F-radiolabeled using two different conjugation methods resulting in similar specific activities and without impairing immunoreactivity. Both tracers ([18F]FB-GAcDb and [18F]FBEM-GAcDb) specifically target human CD20-expressing B cells in transgenic mice. Fast blood clearance results in high contrast PET images as early as 1 h post injection enabling same-day imaging. [18F]FB-GAcDb immunoPET detects disseminated lymphoma disease in the context of normal tissue expression of hCD20, with comparable sensitivity as [18F]FDG PET but with added specificity for the therapeutic target.Conclusions[18F]FB-GAcDb and [18F]FBEM-GAcDb could monitor normal B cells and B cell malignancies non-invasively and quantitatively in vivo. In contrast to [18F]FDG PET, immunoPET provides not only information about the extent of disease but also about presence and localisation of the therapeutic target.

The trend to inform personalized molecular radiotherapy with molecular imaging diagnostics, a concept referred to as theranostics, has transformed the field of nuclear medicine in recent years. The development of theranostic pairs comprising somatostatin receptor (SSTR)-targeting nuclear imaging probes and therapeutic agents for the treatment of patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) has been a driving force behind this development. With the Neuroendocrine Tumor Therapy (NETTER-1) phase 3 trial reporting encouraging results in the treatment of well-differentiated, metastatic midgut NETs, peptide radioligand therapy (RLT) with the 177Lu-labeled somatostatin analog (SSA) [177Lu]Lu-DOTA-TATE is now anticipated to become the standard of care. On the diagnostics side, the field is currently dominated by 68Ga-labeled SSAs for the molecular imaging of NETs with positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET/CT). PET/CT imaging with SSAs such as [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE, [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TOC, and [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-NOC allows for NET staging with high accuracy and is used to qualify patients for RLT. Driven by the demand for PET/CT imaging of NETs, a commercial kit for the production of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE (NETSPOT) was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The synthesis of 68Ga-labeled SSAs from a 68Ge/68Ga-generator is straightforward and allows for a decentralized production, but there are economic and logistic difficulties associated with these approaches that warrant the search for a viable, generator-independent alternative. The clinical introduction of an 18F-labeled SSTR-imaging probe can help mitigate the shortcomings of the generator-based synthesis approach, but despite extensive research efforts, none of the proposed 18F-labeled SSAs has been translated past prospective first-in-humans studies so far. Here, we review the current state of probe-development from a translational viewpoint and make a case for a clinically viable, 18F-labeled alternative to the current standard [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE.

The trend to inform personalized molecular radiotherapy with molecular imaging diagnostics, a concept referred to as theranostics, has transformed the field of nuclear medicine in recent years. The development of theranostic pairs comprising somatostatin receptor (SSTR)-targeting nuclear imaging probes and therapeutic agents for the treatment of patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) has been a driving force behind this development. With the Neuroendocrine Tumor Therapy (NETTER-1) phase 3 trial reporting encouraging results in the treatment of well-differentiated, metastatic midgut NETs, peptide radioligand therapy (RLT) with the 177Lu-labeled somatostatin analog (SSA) [177Lu]Lu-DOTA-TATE is now anticipated to become the standard of care. On the diagnostics side, the field is currently dominated by 68Ga-labeled SSAs for the molecular imaging of NETs with positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET/CT). PET/CT imaging with SSAs such as [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE, [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TOC, and [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-NOC allows for NET staging with high accuracy and is used to qualify patients for RLT. Driven by the demand for PET/CT imaging of NETs, a commercial kit for the production of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE (NETSPOT) was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The synthesis of 68Ga-labeled SSAs from a 68Ge/68Ga-generator is straightforward and allows for a decentralized production, but there are economic and logistic difficulties associated with these approaches that warrant the search for a viable, generator-independent alternative. The clinical introduction of an 18F-labeled SSTR-imaging probe can help mitigate the shortcomings of the generator-based synthesis approach, but despite extensive research efforts, none of the proposed 18F-labeled SSAs has been translated past prospective first-in-humans studies so far. Here, we review the current state of probe-development from a translational viewpoint and make a case for a clinically viable, 18F-labeled alternative to the current standard [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-TATE.

An all-electronic, droplet-based batch microfluidic device, operated using the electrowetting on dielectric (EWOD) mechanism was developed for on-demand synthesis of N-succinimidyl-4-[18F]fluorobenzoate ([18F]SFB), the most commonly used 18F-prosthetic group for biomolecule labeling. In order to facilitate the development of peptides, and proteins as new diagnostic and therapeutic agents, we have diversified the compact EWOD microfluidic platform to perform the three-step radiosynthesis of [18F]SFB starting from the no carrier added [18F]fluoride ion. In this report, we established an optimal microliter droplet reaction condition to obtain reliable yields and synthesized [18F]SFB with sufficient radioactivity for subsequent conjugation to the anti-PSCA cys-diabody (A2cDb) and for small animal imaging. The three-step, one-pot radiosynthesis of [18F]SFB radiochemistry was adapted to a batch microfluidic platform with a reaction droplet sandwiched between two parallel plates of an EWOD chip, and optimized. Specifically, the ratio of precursor to base, droplet volume, reagent concentration, reaction time, and evaporation time were found be to be critical parameters. [18F]SFB was successfully synthesized on the EWOD chip in 39 ± 7% (n = 4) radiochemical yield in a total synthesis time of ∼120 min ([18F]fluoride activation, [18F]fluorination, hydrolysis, and coupling reaction, HPLC purification, drying and reformulation). The reformulation and stabilization step for [18F]SFB was important to obtain a high protein labeling efficiency of 33.1 ± 12.5% (n = 3). A small-animal immunoPET pilot study demonstrated that the [18F]SFB-PSCA diabody conjugate showed specific uptake in the PSCA-positive human prostate cancer xenograft. The successful development of a compact footprint of the EWOD radiosynthesizer has the potential to empower biologists to produce PET probes of interest themselves in a standard laboratory.

Concentration of [18F]fluoride has been mentioned in literature, however, reports have lacked details about system designs, operation, and performance. Here, we describe in detail a compact, fast, fully-automated concentration system based on a micro-sized strong anion exchange cartridge. The concentration of radionuclides enables scaled-up microfluidic synthesis. Our system can also be used to provide highly concentrated [18F]fluoride with minimal water content. We demonstrate how the concentrator can produce varying concentrations of [18F]fluoride for the macroscale synthesis of N-boc-5-[18F]fluoroindole without an azeotropic drying process, while enabling high starting radioactivity. By appropriate choice of solid-phase resin, flow conditions, and eluent solution, we believe this approach can be extended beyond [18F]fluoride to other radionuclides.

The development of new positron-emission tomography (PET) tracers is enabling researchers and clinicians to image an increasingly wide array of biological targets and processes. However, the increasing number of different tracers creates challenges for their production at radiopharmacies. While historically it has been practical to dedicate a custom-configured radiosynthesizer and hot cell for the repeated production of each individual tracer, it is becoming necessary to change this workflow. Recent commercial radiosynthesizers based on disposable cassettes/kits for each tracer simplify the production of multiple tracers with one set of equipment by eliminating the need for custom tracer-specific modifications. Furthermore, some of these radiosynthesizers enable the operator to develop and optimize their own synthesis protocols in addition to purchasing commercially-available kits. In this protocol, we describe the general procedure for how the manual synthesis of a new PET tracer can be automated on one of these radiosynthesizers and validated for the production of clinical-grade tracers. As an example, we use the ELIXYS radiosynthesizer, a flexible cassette-based radiochemistry tool that can support both PET tracer development efforts, as well as routine clinical probe manufacturing on the same system, to produce [18F]Clofarabine ([18F]CFA), a PET tracer to measure in vivo deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) enzyme activity. Translating a manual synthesis involves breaking down the synthetic protocol into basic radiochemistry processes that are then translated into intuitive chemistry "unit operations" supported by the synthesizer software. These operations can then rapidly be converted into an automated synthesis program by assembling them using the drag-and-drop interface. After basic testing, the synthesis and purification procedure may require optimization to achieve the desired yield and purity. Once the desired performance is achieved, a validation of the synthesis is carried out to determine its suitability for the production of the radiotracer for clinical use.

BackgroundPeptides labeled with positron-emitting isotopes are emerging as a versatile class of compounds for the development of highly specific, targeted imaging agents for diagnostic imaging via positron-emission tomography (PET) and for precision medicine via theranostic applications. Despite the success of peptides labeled with gallium-68 (for imaging) or lutetium-177 (for therapy) in the clinical management of patients with neuroendocrine tumors or prostate cancer, there are significant advantages of using fluorine-18 for imaging. Recent developments have greatly simplified such labeling: in particular, labeling of organotrifluoroborates via isotopic exchange can readily be performed in a single-step under aqueous conditions and without the need for HPLC purification. Though an automated synthesis has not yet been explored, microfluidic approaches have emerged for 18F-labeling with high speed, minimal reagents, and high molar activity compared to conventional approaches. As a proof-of-concept, we performed microfluidic labeling of an octreotate analog ([18F]AMBF3-TATE), a promising 18F-labeled analog that could compete with [68Ga]Ga-DOTATATE with the advantage of providing a greater number of patient doses per batch produced.MethodsBoth [18F]AMBF3-TATE and [68Ga]Ga-DOTATATE were labeled, the former by microscale methods adapted from manual labeling, and were imaged in mice bearing human SSTR2-overexpressing, rat SSTR2 wildtype, and SSTR2-negative xenografts. Furthermore, a dosimetry analysis was performed for [18F]AMBF3-TATE.ResultsThe micro-synthesis exhibited highly-repeatable performance with radiochemical conversion of 50 ± 6% (n = 15), overall decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 16 ± 1% (n = 5) in ~40 min, radiochemical purity >99%, and high molar activity. Preclinical imaging with [18F]AMBF3-TATE in SSTR2 tumor models correlated well with [68Ga]Ga-DOTATATE. The favorable biodistribution, with the highest tracer accumulation in the bladder followed distantly by gastrointestinal tissues, resulted in 1.26 × 10-2 mSv/MBq maximal estimated effective dose in human, a value lower than that reported for current clinical 18F- and 68Ga-labeled compounds.ConclusionsThe combination of novel chemical approaches to 18F-labeling and microdroplet radiochemistry have the potential to serve as a platform for greatly simplified development and production of 18F-labeled peptide tracers. Favorable preclinical imaging and dosimetry of [18F]AMBF3-TATE, combined with a convenient synthesis, validate this assertion and suggest strong potential for clinical translation.

Miniaturized synthesis of positron emission tomography (PET) tracers is poised to offer numerous advantages including reduced tracer production costs and increased availability of diverse tracers. While many steps of the tracer production process have been miniaturized, there has been relatively little development of microscale systems for the quality control (QC) testing process that is required by regulatory agencies to ensure purity, identity, and biological safety of the radiotracer before use in human subjects. Every batch must be tested, and in contrast with ordinary pharmaceuticals, the whole set of tests of radiopharmaceuticals must be completed within a short-period of time to minimize losses due to radioactive decay. By replacing conventional techniques with microscale analytical ones, it may be possible to significantly reduce instrument cost, conserve lab space, shorten analysis times, and streamline this aspect of PET tracer production. We focus in this work on miniaturizing the subset of QC tests for chemical identity and purity. These tests generally require high-resolution chromatographic separation prior to detection to enable the approach to be applied to many different tracers (and their impurities), and have not yet, to the best of our knowledge, been tackled in microfluidic systems. Toward this end, we previously explored the feasibility of using the technique of capillary electrophoresis (CE) as a replacement for the "gold standard" approach of using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) since CE offers similar separating power, flexibility, and sensitivity, but can readily be implemented in a microchip format. Using a conventional CE system, we previously demonstrated the successful separation of non-radioactive version of a clinical PET tracer, 3'-deoxy-3'-fluorothymidine (FLT), from its known by-products, and the separation of the PET tracer 1-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro-β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-cytosine (D-FAC) from its α-isomer, with sensitivity nearly as good as HPLC. Building on this feasibility study, in this paper, we describe the first effort to miniaturize the chemical identity and purity tests by using microchip electrophoresis (MCE). The fully automated proof-of-concept system comprises a chip for sample injection, a separation capillary, and an optical detection chip. Using the same model compound (FLT and its known by-products), we demonstrate that samples can be injected, separated, and detected, and show the potential to match the performance of HPLC. Addition of a radiation detector in the future would enable analysis of radiochemical identity and purity in the same device. We envision that eventually this MCE method could be combined with other miniaturized QC tests into a compact integrated system for automated routine QC testing of radiopharmaceuticals in the future. Graphical abstract Miniaturized quality control (QC) testing of batches of radiopharmaceuticals via microfluidic analysis. The proof-of-concept hybrid microchip electrophoresis (MCE) device demonstrated the feasibility of achieving comparable performance to conventional analytical instruments (HPLC or CE) for chemical purity testing.

The coupling of gemcitabine with functionalized carboxylic acids using peptide coupling conditions afforded 4-N-alkanoyl analogues with a terminal alkyne or azido moiety. Reaction of 4-N-tosylgemcitabine with azidoalkyl amine provided 4-N-alkyl gemcitabine with a terminal azido group. Click reaction with silane building blocks afforded 4-N-alkanoyl or 4-N-alkyl gemcitabine analogues suitable for fluorination. RP-HPLC analysis indicated better chemical stability of 4-N-alkyl gemcitabine analogues versus 4-N-alkanoyl analogues in acidic aqueous conditions. The 4-N-alkanoyl gemcitabine analogues showed potent cytostatic activity against L1210 cell line, but cytotoxicity of the 4-N-alkylgemcitabine analogues was low. However, 4-N-alkanoyl and 4-N-alkyl analogues had comparable antiproliferative activities in the HEK293 cells. The 4-N-alkyl analogue with a terminal azide group was shown to be localized inside HEK293 cells by fluorescence microscopy after labelling with Fluor 488-alkyne. The [18F]4-N-alkyl or alkanoyl silane gemcitabine analogues were successfully synthesized using microscale and conventional silane-labeling radiochemical protocols. Preliminary positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging in mice showed the biodistribution of [18F]4-N-alkyl to have initial concentration in the liver, kidneys and GI tract followed by increasing signal in the bone.

Miniaturized synthesis of positron emission tomography (PET) tracers is poised to offer numerous advantages including reduced tracer production costs and increased availability of diverse tracers. While many steps of the tracer production process have been miniaturized, there has been relatively little development of microscale systems for the quality control (QC) testing process that is required by regulatory agencies to ensure purity, identity, and biological safety of the radiotracer before use in human subjects. Every batch must be tested, and in contrast with ordinary pharmaceuticals, the whole set of tests of radiopharmaceuticals must be completed within a short-period of time to minimize losses due to radioactive decay. By replacing conventional techniques with microscale analytical ones, it may be possible to significantly reduce instrument cost, conserve lab space, shorten analysis times, and streamline this aspect of PET tracer production. We focus in this work on miniaturizing the subset of QC tests for chemical identity and purity. These tests generally require high-resolution chromatographic separation prior to detection to enable the approach to be applied to many different tracers (and their impurities), and have not yet, to the best of our knowledge, been tackled in microfluidic systems. Toward this end, we previously explored the feasibility of using the technique of capillary electrophoresis (CE) as a replacement for the "gold standard" approach of using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) since CE offers similar separating power, flexibility, and sensitivity, but can readily be implemented in a microchip format. Using a conventional CE system, we previously demonstrated the successful separation of non-radioactive version of a clinical PET tracer, 3'-deoxy-3'-fluorothymidine (FLT), from its known by-products, and the separation of the PET tracer 1-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro-β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-cytosine (D-FAC) from its α-isomer, with sensitivity nearly as good as HPLC. Building on this feasibility study, in this paper, we describe the first effort to miniaturize the chemical identity and purity tests by using microchip electrophoresis (MCE). The fully automated proof-of-concept system comprises a chip for sample injection, a separation capillary, and an optical detection chip. Using the same model compound (FLT and its known by-products), we demonstrate that samples can be injected, separated, and detected, and show the potential to match the performance of HPLC. Addition of a radiation detector in the future would enable analysis of radiochemical identity and purity in the same device. We envision that eventually this MCE method could be combined with other miniaturized QC tests into a compact integrated system for automated routine QC testing of radiopharmaceuticals in the future. Graphical abstract Miniaturized quality control (QC) testing of batches of radiopharmaceuticals via microfluidic analysis. The proof-of-concept hybrid microchip electrophoresis (MCE) device demonstrated the feasibility of achieving comparable performance to conventional analytical instruments (HPLC or CE) for chemical purity testing.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a molecular diagnostic imaging technology to quantitatively visualize biological processes in vivo. For many applications, including imaging of low tissue density targets (e.g. neuroreceptors), imaging in small animals, and evaluation of novel tracers, the injected PET tracer must be produced with high molar activity to ensure low occupancy of biological targets and avoid pharmacologic effects. Additionally, high molar activity is essential for tracers with lengthy syntheses or tracers transported to distant imaging sites. We show that radiosynthesis of PET tracers in microliter volumes instead of conventional milliliter volumes results in substantially increased molar activity, and we identify the most relevant variables affecting this parameter. Furthermore, using the PET tracer [18F]fallypride, we illustrate that molar activity can have a significant impact on biodistribution. With full automation, microdroplet platforms could provide a means for radiochemists to routinely, conveniently, and safely produce PET tracers with high molar activity.

The development of new positron-emission tomography (PET) tracers is enabling researchers and clinicians to image an increasingly wide array of biological targets and processes. However, the increasing number of different tracers creates challenges for their production at radiopharmacies. While historically it has been practical to dedicate a custom-configured radiosynthesizer and hot cell for the repeated production of each individual tracer, it is becoming necessary to change this workflow. Recent commercial radiosynthesizers based on disposable cassettes/kits for each tracer simplify the production of multiple tracers with one set of equipment by eliminating the need for custom tracer-specific modifications. Furthermore, some of these radiosynthesizers enable the operator to develop and optimize their own synthesis protocols in addition to purchasing commercially-available kits. In this protocol, we describe the general procedure for how the manual synthesis of a new PET tracer can be automated on one of these radiosynthesizers and validated for the production of clinical-grade tracers. As an example, we use the ELIXYS radiosynthesizer, a flexible cassette-based radiochemistry tool that can support both PET tracer development efforts, as well as routine clinical probe manufacturing on the same system, to produce [18F]Clofarabine ([18F]CFA), a PET tracer to measure in vivo deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) enzyme activity. Translating a manual synthesis involves breaking down the synthetic protocol into basic radiochemistry processes that are then translated into intuitive chemistry "unit operations" supported by the synthesizer software. These operations can then rapidly be converted into an automated synthesis program by assembling them using the drag-and-drop interface. After basic testing, the synthesis and purification procedure may require optimization to achieve the desired yield and purity. Once the desired performance is achieved, a validation of the synthesis is carried out to determine its suitability for the production of the radiotracer for clinical use.

Despite the increasing importance of positron emission tomography (PET) imaging in research and clinical management of disease, access to myriad new radioactive tracers is severely limited due to their short half-lives (which requires daily production) and the high cost and complexity of tracer production. The application of droplet microfluidics based on electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) to the field of radiochemistry can significantly reduce the amount of radiation shielding necessary for safety and the amount of precursor and other reagents needed for the synthesis. Furthermore, significant improvements in the molar activity of the tracers have been observed. However, widespread use of this technology is currently hindered in part by the high cost of prototype chips and the operating complexity. To address these issues, we developed a novel microfluidic device based on patterned wettability for multi-step radiochemical reactions in microliter droplets and implemented automated systems for reagent loading and collection of the crude product after synthesis. In this paper, we describe a simple and inexpensive method for fabricating the chips, demonstrate the feasibility of prototype chips for performing multi-step radiochemical reactions to produce the PET tracers [18F]fallypride and [18F]FDG, and further show that synthesized [18F]fallypride can be used for in vivo mouse imaging.

Radiopharmaceuticals labeled with short-lived positron-emitting or gamma-emitting isotopes are injected into patients just prior to performing positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission tomography (SPECT) scans, respectively. These imaging modalities are widely used in clinical care, as well as in the development and evaluation of new therapies in clinical research. Prior to injection, these radiopharmaceuticals (tracers) must undergo quality control (QC) testing to ensure product purity, identity, and safety for human use. Quality tests can be broadly categorized as (i) pharmaceutical tests, needed to ensure molecular identity, physiological compatibility and that no microbiological, pyrogenic, chemical, or particulate contamination is present in the final preparation; and (ii) radioactive tests, needed to ensure proper dosing and that there are no radiochemical and radionuclidic impurities that could interfere with the biodistribution or imaging. Performing the required QC tests is cumbersome and time-consuming, and requires an array of expensive analytical chemistry equipment and significant dedicated lab space. Calibrations, day of use tests, and documentation create an additional burden. Furthermore, in contrast to ordinary pharmaceuticals, each batch of short-lived radiopharmaceuticals must be manufactured and tested within a short period of time to avoid significant losses due to radioactive decay. To meet these challenges, several efforts are underway to develop integrated QC testing instruments that automatically perform and document all of the required tests. More recently, microfluidic quality control systems have been gaining increasing attention due to vastly reduced sample and reagent consumption, shorter analysis times, higher detection sensitivity, increased multiplexing, and reduced instrumentation size. In this review, we describe each of the required QC tests and conventional testing methods, followed by a discussion of efforts to directly miniaturize the test or examples in the literature that could be implemented for miniaturized QC testing.

Radiopharmaceuticals labeled with short-lived positron-emitting or gamma-emitting isotopes are injected into patients just prior to performing positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission tomography (SPECT) scans, respectively. These imaging modalities are widely used in clinical care, as well as in the development and evaluation of new therapies in clinical research. Prior to injection, these radiopharmaceuticals (tracers) must undergo quality control (QC) testing to ensure product purity, identity, and safety for human use. Quality tests can be broadly categorized as (i) pharmaceutical tests, needed to ensure molecular identity, physiological compatibility and that no microbiological, pyrogenic, chemical, or particulate contamination is present in the final preparation; and (ii) radioactive tests, needed to ensure proper dosing and that there are no radiochemical and radionuclidic impurities that could interfere with the biodistribution or imaging. Performing the required QC tests is cumbersome and time-consuming, and requires an array of expensive analytical chemistry equipment and significant dedicated lab space. Calibrations, day of use tests, and documentation create an additional burden. Furthermore, in contrast to ordinary pharmaceuticals, each batch of short-lived radiopharmaceuticals must be manufactured and tested within a short period of time to avoid significant losses due to radioactive decay. To meet these challenges, several efforts are underway to develop integrated QC testing instruments that automatically perform and document all of the required tests. More recently, microfluidic quality control systems have been gaining increasing attention due to vastly reduced sample and reagent consumption, shorter analysis times, higher detection sensitivity, increased multiplexing, and reduced instrumentation size. In this review, we describe each of the required QC tests and conventional testing methods, followed by a discussion of efforts to directly miniaturize the test or examples in the literature that could be implemented for miniaturized QC testing.

New radiolabeled probes for positron-emission tomography (PET) are providing an ever-increasing ability to answer diverse research and clinical questions and to facilitate the discovery, development, and clinical use of drugs in patient care. Despite the high equipment and facility costs to produce PET probes, many radiopharmacies and radiochemistry laboratories use a dedicated radiosynthesizer to produce each probe, even if the equipment is idle much of the time, to avoid the challenges of reconfiguring the system fluidics to switch from one probe to another. To meet growing demand, more cost-efficient approaches are being developed, such as radiosynthesizers based on disposable "cassettes," that do not require reconfiguration to switch among probes. However, most cassette-based systems make sacrifices in synthesis complexity or tolerated reaction conditions, and some do not support custom programming, thereby limiting their generality. In contrast, the design of the ELIXYS FLEX/CHEM cassette-based synthesizer supports higher temperatures and pressures than other systems while also facilitating flexible synthesis development. In this paper, the syntheses of 24 known PET probes are adapted to this system to explore the possibility of using a single radiosynthesizer and hot cell for production of a diverse array of compounds with wide-ranging synthesis requirements, alongside synthesis development efforts. Most probes were produced with yields and synthesis times comparable to literature reports, and because hardware modification was unnecessary, it was convenient to frequently switch among probes based on demand. Although our facility supplies probes for preclinical imaging, the same workflow would be applicable in a clinical setting.

New radiolabeled probes for positron-emission tomography (PET) are providing an ever-increasing ability to answer diverse research and clinical questions and to facilitate the discovery, development, and clinical use of drugs in patient care. Despite the high equipment and facility costs to produce PET probes, many radiopharmacies and radiochemistry laboratories use a dedicated radiosynthesizer to produce each probe, even if the equipment is idle much of the time, to avoid the challenges of reconfiguring the system fluidics to switch from one probe to another. To meet growing demand, more cost-efficient approaches are being developed, such as radiosynthesizers based on disposable "cassettes," that do not require reconfiguration to switch among probes. However, most cassette-based systems make sacrifices in synthesis complexity or tolerated reaction conditions, and some do not support custom programming, thereby limiting their generality. In contrast, the design of the ELIXYS FLEX/CHEM cassette-based synthesizer supports higher temperatures and pressures than other systems while also facilitating flexible synthesis development. In this paper, the syntheses of 24 known PET probes are adapted to this system to explore the possibility of using a single radiosynthesizer and hot cell for production of a diverse array of compounds with wide-ranging synthesis requirements, alongside synthesis development efforts. Most probes were produced with yields and synthesis times comparable to literature reports, and because hardware modification was unnecessary, it was convenient to frequently switch among probes based on demand. Although our facility supplies probes for preclinical imaging, the same workflow would be applicable in a clinical setting.

A novel injector for microchip electrophoresis (MCE) has been designed and evaluated that achieves very high repeatability of injection volume suitable for quantitative analysis. It eliminates the injection biases in electrokinetic injection and the dependence on pressure and sample properties in hydrodynamic injection. The microfluidic injector, made of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), operates similarly to an HPLC injection valve. It contains a channel segment (chamber) with a well-defined volume that serves as an "injection loop". Using on-chip microvalves, the chamber can be connected to the sample source during the "loading" step, and to the CE separation channel during the "injection" step. Once the valves are opened in the second state, electrophoretic potential is applied to separate the sample. For evaluation and demonstration purposes, the microinjector was connected to a 75 μm ID capillary and UV absorbance detector. For single compounds, a relative standard deviation (RSD) of peak area as low as 1.04% (n = 11) was obtained, and for compound mixtures, RSD as low as 0.40% (n = 4) was observed. Using the same microchip, the performance of this new injection technique was compared to hydrodynamic injection and found to have improved repeatability and less dependence on sample viscosity. Furthermore, a non-radioactive version of the positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging probe, FLT, was successfully separated from its known 3 structurally-similar byproducts with baseline resolution, demonstrating the potential for rapid, quantitative analysis of impurities to ensure the safety of batches of short-lived radiotracers. Both the separation efficiency and injection repeatability were found to be substantially higher when using the novel volumetric injection approach compared to electrokinetic injection (performed in the same chip). This novel microinjector provides a straightforward way to improve the performance of hydrodynamic injection and enables extremely repeatable sample volume injection in MCE. It could be used in any MCE application where volume repeatability is needed, including the quantitation of impurities in pharmaceutical or radiopharmaceutical samples.

A novel injector for microchip electrophoresis (MCE) has been designed and evaluated that achieves very high repeatability of injection volume suitable for quantitative analysis. It eliminates the injection biases in electrokinetic injection and the dependence on pressure and sample properties in hydrodynamic injection. The microfluidic injector, made of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), operates similarly to an HPLC injection valve. It contains a channel segment (chamber) with a well-defined volume that serves as an "injection loop". Using on-chip microvalves, the chamber can be connected to the sample source during the "loading" step, and to the CE separation channel during the "injection" step. Once the valves are opened in the second state, electrophoretic potential is applied to separate the sample. For evaluation and demonstration purposes, the microinjector was connected to a 75 μm ID capillary and UV absorbance detector. For single compounds, a relative standard deviation (RSD) of peak area as low as 1.04% (n = 11) was obtained, and for compound mixtures, RSD as low as 0.40% (n = 4) was observed. Using the same microchip, the performance of this new injection technique was compared to hydrodynamic injection and found to have improved repeatability and less dependence on sample viscosity. Furthermore, a non-radioactive version of the positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging probe, FLT, was successfully separated from its known 3 structurally-similar byproducts with baseline resolution, demonstrating the potential for rapid, quantitative analysis of impurities to ensure the safety of batches of short-lived radiotracers. Both the separation efficiency and injection repeatability were found to be substantially higher when using the novel volumetric injection approach compared to electrokinetic injection (performed in the same chip). This novel microinjector provides a straightforward way to improve the performance of hydrodynamic injection and enables extremely repeatable sample volume injection in MCE. It could be used in any MCE application where volume repeatability is needed, including the quantitation of impurities in pharmaceutical or radiopharmaceutical samples.