Search

Titanium nitride (TiN) is an ideal material for infrared plasmonics due to its excellent optical properties, high melting temperature, mechanical and chemical stabilities, and bio- and CMOS compatibilities. In this work, we demonstrate that ultrathin and scalable TiN epitaxial structures can be applied for tunable infrared plasmonics, extending into near- to mid-infrared spectral regions. The ultrathin (111)-oriented TiN epitaxial films studied here were grown on c-plane sapphire wafers without any wetting layer by ultrahigh-vacuum nitrogen-plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. This method allows for stoichiometric TiN growth without the issue of contamination (especially oxygen) in conventional TiN growth techniques. Structural analyses for these films validate their single-crystalline properties with continuous film morphologies down to a few nanometers in thickness. Furthermore, the frequency-tunable (wavelength range: 1-4 μm) plasmonic metasurfaces have been demonstrated by controlling surface plasmon resonances via lithographically patterning of ultrathin TiN epitaxial films with varying thicknesses (4-30 nm) and grating structure parameters (pitch: 300-1200 nm, width: 200-800 nm). The tunable plasmonic metasurfaces based on ultrathin TiN epitaxial films hold great promise for emerging infrared plasmonic applications, such as thermal photovoltaics requiring narrow-band emitters, photodetectors, and biosensors in the near- and mid-infrared spectral regions.

Nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) are a group of specialized microbial predators that consume nematodes when food sources are limited. Predation is initiated when conserved nematode ascaroside pheromones are sensed, followed by the development of complex trapping devices. To gain insights into the coevolution of this interkingdom predator-prey relationship, we investigated natural populations of nematodes and NTF that we found to be ubiquitous in soils. Arthrobotrys species were sympatric with various nematode species and behaved as generalist predators. The ability to sense prey among wild isolates of Arthrobotrys oligospora varied greatly, as determined by the number of traps after exposure to Caenorhabditis elegans While some strains were highly sensitive to C. elegans and the nematode pheromone ascarosides, others responded only weakly. Furthermore, strains that were highly sensitive to the nematode prey also developed traps faster. The polymorphic nature of trap formation correlated with competency in prey killing, as well as with the phylogeny of A. oligospora natural strains, calculated after assembly and annotation of the genomes of 20 isolates. A chromosome-level genome assembly and annotation were established for one of the most sensitive wild isolates, and deletion of the only G-protein β-subunit-encoding gene of A. oligospora nearly abolished trap formation. In summary, our study establishes a highly responsive A. oligospora wild isolate as a model strain for the study of fungus-nematode interactions and demonstrates that trap formation is a fitness character in generalist predators of the nematode-trapping fungus family.

Nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) are a group of specialized microbial predators that consume nematodes when food sources are limited. Predation is initiated when conserved nematode ascaroside pheromones are sensed, followed by the development of complex trapping devices. To gain insights into the coevolution of this interkingdom predator-prey relationship, we investigated natural populations of nematodes and NTF that we found to be ubiquitous in soils. Arthrobotrys species were sympatric with various nematode species and behaved as generalist predators. The ability to sense prey among wild isolates of Arthrobotrys oligospora varied greatly, as determined by the number of traps after exposure to Caenorhabditis elegans While some strains were highly sensitive to C. elegans and the nematode pheromone ascarosides, others responded only weakly. Furthermore, strains that were highly sensitive to the nematode prey also developed traps faster. The polymorphic nature of trap formation correlated with competency in prey killing, as well as with the phylogeny of A. oligospora natural strains, calculated after assembly and annotation of the genomes of 20 isolates. A chromosome-level genome assembly and annotation were established for one of the most sensitive wild isolates, and deletion of the only G-protein β-subunit-encoding gene of A. oligospora nearly abolished trap formation. In summary, our study establishes a highly responsive A. oligospora wild isolate as a model strain for the study of fungus-nematode interactions and demonstrates that trap formation is a fitness character in generalist predators of the nematode-trapping fungus family.

Nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) are a group of specialized microbial predators that consume nematodes when food sources are limited. Predation is initiated when conserved nematode ascaroside pheromones are sensed, followed by the development of complex trapping devices. To gain insights into the coevolution of this interkingdom predator-prey relationship, we investigated natural populations of nematodes and NTF that we found to be ubiquitous in soils. Arthrobotrys species were sympatric with various nematode species and behaved as generalist predators. The ability to sense prey among wild isolates of Arthrobotrys oligospora varied greatly, as determined by the number of traps after exposure to Caenorhabditis elegans While some strains were highly sensitive to C. elegans and the nematode pheromone ascarosides, others responded only weakly. Furthermore, strains that were highly sensitive to the nematode prey also developed traps faster. The polymorphic nature of trap formation correlated with competency in prey killing, as well as with the phylogeny of A. oligospora natural strains, calculated after assembly and annotation of the genomes of 20 isolates. A chromosome-level genome assembly and annotation were established for one of the most sensitive wild isolates, and deletion of the only G-protein β-subunit-encoding gene of A. oligospora nearly abolished trap formation. In summary, our study establishes a highly responsive A. oligospora wild isolate as a model strain for the study of fungus-nematode interactions and demonstrates that trap formation is a fitness character in generalist predators of the nematode-trapping fungus family.

An increasing body of evidence points to significant spatio-temporal differences in early placental development between mouse and human, but a detailed comparison of placentae in these two species is missing. We set out to compare placentae from both species across gestation, with a focus on trophoblast progenitor markers. We found that CDX2 and ELF5, but not EOMES, are expressed in early post-implantation trophoblast subpopulations in both species. Genome-wide expression profiling of mouse and human placentae revealed clusters of genes with distinct co-expression patterns across gestation. Overall, there was a closer fit between patterns observed in the placentae when the inter-species comparison was restricted to human placentae through gestational week 16 (thus, excluding full-term samples), suggesting that the developmental timeline in mouse runs parallel to the first half of human placental development. In addition, we identified VGLL1 as a human-specific marker of proliferative cytotrophoblast, where it is co-expressed with the transcription factor TEAD4. As TEAD4 is involved in trophectoderm specification in the mouse, we posit a regulatory role for VGLL1 in early events during human placental development.

An increasing body of evidence points to significant spatio-temporal differences in early placental development between mouse and human, but a detailed comparison of placentae in these two species is missing. We set out to compare placentae from both species across gestation, with a focus on trophoblast progenitor markers. We found that CDX2 and ELF5, but not EOMES, are expressed in early post-implantation trophoblast subpopulations in both species. Genome-wide expression profiling of mouse and human placentae revealed clusters of genes with distinct co-expression patterns across gestation. Overall, there was a closer fit between patterns observed in the placentae when the inter-species comparison was restricted to human placentae through gestational week 16 (thus, excluding full-term samples), suggesting that the developmental timeline in mouse runs parallel to the first half of human placental development. In addition, we identified VGLL1 as a human-specific marker of proliferative cytotrophoblast, where it is co-expressed with the transcription factor TEAD4. As TEAD4 is involved in trophectoderm specification in the mouse, we posit a regulatory role for VGLL1 in early events during human placental development.

Development of the early embryo takes place under low oxygen tension. Under such conditions, the embryo implants and the trophectoderm, the outer layer of blastocyst, proliferate, forming the cytotrophoblastic shell, the early placenta. The cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) are the so-called epithelial 'stem cells' of the placenta, which, depending on the signals they receive, can differentiate into either extravillous trophoblast (EVT) or syncytiotrophoblast (STB). EVTs anchor the placenta to the uterine wall and remodel maternal spiral arterioles in order to provide ample blood supply to the growing fetus. STBs arise through CTB fusion, secrete hormones necessary for pregnancy maintenance and form a barrier across which nutrient and gas exchange can take place. The bulk of EVT differentiation occurs during the first trimester, before the onset of maternal arterial blood flow into the intervillous space of the placenta, and thus under low oxygen tension. These conditions affect numerous signaling pathways, including those acting through hypoxia-inducible factor, the nutrient sensor mTOR and the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced unfolded protein response pathway. These pathways are known to be involved in placental development and disease, and specific components have even been identified as directly involved in lineage-specific trophoblast differentiation. Nevertheless, much controversy surrounds the role of hypoxia in trophoblast differentiation, particularly with EVT. This review summarizes previous studies on this topic, with the intent of integrating these results and synthesizing conclusions that resolve some of the controversy, but then also pointing to remaining areas, which require further investigation.

Development of the early embryo takes place under low oxygen tension. Under such conditions, the embryo implants and the trophectoderm, the outer layer of blastocyst, proliferate, forming the cytotrophoblastic shell, the early placenta. The cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) are the so-called epithelial 'stem cells' of the placenta, which, depending on the signals they receive, can differentiate into either extravillous trophoblast (EVT) or syncytiotrophoblast (STB). EVTs anchor the placenta to the uterine wall and remodel maternal spiral arterioles in order to provide ample blood supply to the growing fetus. STBs arise through CTB fusion, secrete hormones necessary for pregnancy maintenance and form a barrier across which nutrient and gas exchange can take place. The bulk of EVT differentiation occurs during the first trimester, before the onset of maternal arterial blood flow into the intervillous space of the placenta, and thus under low oxygen tension. These conditions affect numerous signaling pathways, including those acting through hypoxia-inducible factor, the nutrient sensor mTOR and the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced unfolded protein response pathway. These pathways are known to be involved in placental development and disease, and specific components have even been identified as directly involved in lineage-specific trophoblast differentiation. Nevertheless, much controversy surrounds the role of hypoxia in trophoblast differentiation, particularly with EVT. This review summarizes previous studies on this topic, with the intent of integrating these results and synthesizing conclusions that resolve some of the controversy, but then also pointing to remaining areas, which require further investigation.

Abnormal trophoblast differentiation is the root cause of many placenta-based pregnancy complications, including preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. Human trophoblast differentiation is difficult to study due to the lack of a stem cell model. Such a multipotent "trophoblast stem" (TS) cell, with the ability to differentiate into all trophoblast subtypes, has been derived from mouse blastocysts, but attempts to derive similar human cells have failed. We consider here several possibilities for the TS cell niche in the human placenta. Aside from discussion of such a niche in the pre-implantation blastocyst, we discuss evidence for these TS cells residing in the post-implantation villous cytotrophoblast layer, or even in the non-trophoblast portions, of the human placenta. It is our hope that recognition of the niche would lead to successful derivation and in vitro establishment of such cells, which could then be disseminated widely to the placental biology community for advancing the field. Availability of self-renewing human TS cells, whose gene expression and environment could be manipulated, will provide a platform, not just for the study of pathophysiology of placental disease, but also for the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for common pregnancy complications.

Abnormal trophoblast differentiation is the root cause of many placenta-based pregnancy complications, including preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. Human trophoblast differentiation is difficult to study due to the lack of a stem cell model. Such a multipotent "trophoblast stem" (TS) cell, with the ability to differentiate into all trophoblast subtypes, has been derived from mouse blastocysts, but attempts to derive similar human cells have failed. We consider here several possibilities for the TS cell niche in the human placenta. Aside from discussion of such a niche in the pre-implantation blastocyst, we discuss evidence for these TS cells residing in the post-implantation villous cytotrophoblast layer, or even in the non-trophoblast portions, of the human placenta. It is our hope that recognition of the niche would lead to successful derivation and in vitro establishment of such cells, which could then be disseminated widely to the placental biology community for advancing the field. Availability of self-renewing human TS cells, whose gene expression and environment could be manipulated, will provide a platform, not just for the study of pathophysiology of placental disease, but also for the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for common pregnancy complications.

Villous cytotrophoblasts are epithelial stem cells of the early human placenta, able to differentiate either into syncytiotrophoblasts in floating chorionic villi or extravillous trophoblasts (EVTs) at the anchoring villi. The signaling pathways regulating differentiation into these two lineages are incompletely understood. The bulk of placental growth and development in the first trimester occurs under low oxygen tension. One major mechanism by which oxygen regulates cellular function is through the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), a transcription factor complex stabilized under low oxygen tension to mediate cellular responses, including cell fate decisions. HIF is known to play a role in trophoblast differentiation in rodents; however, its role in human trophoblast differentiation is poorly understood. Using RNA profiling of sorted populations of primary first-trimester trophoblasts, we evaluated the first stage of EVT differentiation, the transition from epidermal growth factor receptor+ villous cytotrophoblasts into human leukocyte antigen-G+ proximal column EVT (pcEVT) and identified hypoxia as a major pcEVT-associated pathway. Using primary cytotrophoblasts, we determined that culture in low oxygen directs differentiation preferentially toward human leukocyte antigen-G+ pcEVT, and that an intact HIF complex is required for this process. Finally, using global RNA profiling, we identified integrin-linked kinase and associated cytoskeletal remodeling and adhesion to be among HIF-dependent pcEVT-associated signaling pathways. Taken together, we propose that oxygen regulates EVT differentiation through HIF-dependent modulation of various cell adhesion and morphology-related pathways.

Villous cytotrophoblasts are epithelial stem cells of the early human placenta, able to differentiate either into syncytiotrophoblasts in floating chorionic villi or extravillous trophoblasts (EVTs) at the anchoring villi. The signaling pathways regulating differentiation into these two lineages are incompletely understood. The bulk of placental growth and development in the first trimester occurs under low oxygen tension. One major mechanism by which oxygen regulates cellular function is through the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), a transcription factor complex stabilized under low oxygen tension to mediate cellular responses, including cell fate decisions. HIF is known to play a role in trophoblast differentiation in rodents; however, its role in human trophoblast differentiation is poorly understood. Using RNA profiling of sorted populations of primary first-trimester trophoblasts, we evaluated the first stage of EVT differentiation, the transition from epidermal growth factor receptor+ villous cytotrophoblasts into human leukocyte antigen-G+ proximal column EVT (pcEVT) and identified hypoxia as a major pcEVT-associated pathway. Using primary cytotrophoblasts, we determined that culture in low oxygen directs differentiation preferentially toward human leukocyte antigen-G+ pcEVT, and that an intact HIF complex is required for this process. Finally, using global RNA profiling, we identified integrin-linked kinase and associated cytoskeletal remodeling and adhesion to be among HIF-dependent pcEVT-associated signaling pathways. Taken together, we propose that oxygen regulates EVT differentiation through HIF-dependent modulation of various cell adhesion and morphology-related pathways.