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The few studies on Family Language Policy in Singapore (FLP) have generally focused on FLP in local and immigrant Chinese families. This article explores language policies that seem to undergird Singaporean-Japanese families' language practices. In-depth interviews and observations with five such families showed that Japanese only functions as the language of communication between the Japanese parents and their children if parents have invoked particular language policies to support its transmission and use at home. For most families, English was the main medium of communication among family members. Language policies and practices in these families were heavily influenced by the value emplaced on each language within the parents' linguistic repertoire and their beliefs regarding language learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there is evidence of long-term effects of particulate matter (PM) on cardiovascular diseases (CVD), researches about long-term effects of PM 1 on CVD are limited. We aimed to examine the long-term effects and magnitude of PM, especially PM 1 , on incident CVD in China. We included 6016 participants aged ≥ 45 years without CVD at baseline in 2011 from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. Personal PM (PM 1 , PM 2.5 , and PM 10) concentrations were estimated using geocoded residential address. Generalized linear mixed models and SHapley Additive exPlanation were utilized to calculate the impacts and contributions of PM on CVD. Sensitivity analyses were used to check the robustness. After a follow up of 4-year, 481 (7.99 %) participants developed CVD. Per 10 μg/m3 uptick in 1-year average concentrations of PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 was associated with a 1.20 [95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.05–1.37], 1.13 (95 % CI : 1.11–1.15), and 1.10 (95 % CI : 1.06–1.13) fold risk of incident CVD, respectively. The 2-year average concentrations of PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 were associated with incident CVD, corresponding to a 1.03 (95 % CI : 0.96–1.10), 1.11 (95 % CI : 1.02–1.21), and 1.09 (95 % CI : 1.03–1.15) fold risk, respectively. The SHapley Additive exPlanation values of PM 1 , PM 2.5 , and PM 10 were 0.170, 0.153, and 0.053, respectively, corresponding to the first, second, and fifth among all air pollutants. Effects of PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 on CVD remained statistically significant in two-pollutant models. The elderly, males, smokers and alcohol drinkers tended to have slightly higher effects, while the differences were not statistically significant (all P -values > 0.05) between subgroups. Long-term exposure to PM 1 , PM 2.5 , and PM 10 was associated with an increased incidence of CVD. The smaller the particle size, the more important it was for incident CVD indicating that emphasis should be placed on small size of PM. • Long-term exposure to PM 1 was associated with an increased incidence of CVD. • The smaller the particle size, the more important it was for incident CVD. • Elderly, male, smoker and alcohol drinker tended to have slightly higher effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]